Analyze Diet
Journal of child & adolescent trauma2017; 11(3); 289-303; doi: 10.1007/s40653-017-0187-3

Equine Facilitated Therapy for Complex Trauma (EFT-CT).

Abstract: Emerging research suggests that Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy (EFP) may be beneficial for traumatized youth. In addition, complex trauma (i.e., multiple and/or prolonged developmentally adverse traumatic events which are typically interpersonal in nature) treatment research is still growing and there is a need for the development and examination of novel treatments for youth with complex trauma histories. The current article describes a promising EFP model for this population called Equine Facilitated Therapy for Complex Trauma (EFT-CT). EFT-CT embeds EFP practices within Attachment, Regulation and Competency (ARC), an extant evidence-based complex trauma treatment framework for children and adolescents. The authors provide three case studies using both observational data provided by clinicians, as well as longitudinal measures of psychosocial functioning, to illustrate the potential promise of EFT-CT. The article concludes with a discussion about implications for EFP treatment and research.
Publication Date: 2017-08-17 PubMed ID: 30220956PubMed Central: PMC6132374DOI: 10.1007/s40653-017-0187-3Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research article explores a therapy style utilising horses, called Equine Facilitated Therapy for Complex Trauma (EFT-CT), which has potential benefits for young individuals suffering from complex trauma. In particular, EFT-CT combines equine therapy practices with an existing trauma treatment framework, and employs case studies and observational data to demonstrate its potential effectiveness.

Research Background

  • The study dwells into Equine Facilitated Psychotherapy (EFP), a newly emerging therapy style with a focus on its uses and benefits in aiding young individuals experiencing trauma.
  • Development of new approaches to treat complex trauma — psychiatric stress that results from prolonged, repetitive trauma — is found necessary by the researchers due to the evolving nature of research in complex trauma treatment.

Study Methodology

  • The researchers have introduced a new EFP model called Equine Facilitated Therapy for Complex Trauma (EFT-CT), which incorporates the principles and practices of EFP within an established evidence-based complex trauma treatment framework for youngsters, known as Attachment, Regulation, and Competency (ARC).
  • Through the usage of EFT-CT, the research aims to enhance interpersonal skills, emotion regulation, and competency in young individuals suffering from complex trauma by exploring their relationship with horses.

Case Studies and Observational Data

  • The study includes three separate case studies employing both observational data offered by clinicians and longitudinal measures of psychosocial functioning.
  • These measurements and observations are utilised to outline the potential promise and applicability of EFT-CT as an effective therapy for children and adolescents dealing with complex trauma.

Conclusion and Implications

  • The study concludes by highlighting the potential for EFT-CT as an effective method for treating complex trauma in youth.
  • The authors further explore its implications for EFP treatment and research, indicating that EFT-CT could have a significant effect on the field of EFP and how it is employed in therapeutic applications.

Cite This Article

APA
Naste TM, Price M, Karol J, Martin L, Murphy K, Miguel J, Spinazzola J. (2017). Equine Facilitated Therapy for Complex Trauma (EFT-CT). J Child Adolesc Trauma, 11(3), 289-303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-017-0187-3

Publication

ISSN: 1936-1521
NlmUniqueID: 101306630
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 11
Issue: 3
Pages: 289-303

Researcher Affiliations

Naste, Tiffany M
  • 1Justice Resource Institute, Needham, MA USA.
Price, Maggi
  • 2Boston College, Department of Counseling, Developmental, and Educational Psychology, Boston, MA USA.
Karol, Jane
  • Bear Spot Farm, Acton, MA USA.
Martin, Lia
  • 1Justice Resource Institute, Needham, MA USA.
Murphy, Kathryn
  • 1Justice Resource Institute, Needham, MA USA.
Miguel, Jennifer
  • 1Justice Resource Institute, Needham, MA USA.
Spinazzola, Joseph
  • 4Department of Psychology, Suffolk University, Boston, MA USA.
  • 5The Trauma Center at Justice Resource Institute, 1269 Beacon St, Brookline, MA 02446 USA.

Conflict of Interest Statement

All procedures followed were in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee on human experimentation [institutional and national] and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1975, as revised in 2000.Author C owns the company (farm, stables and dressage training center) where the EFP-CT model was developed and is primarily implemented. Authors A, B, D, E, F & G declare that they have no conflicts to report.Informed consent was obtained from all patients for being included in the study.

References

This article includes 84 references
  1. Achenbach TM, Rescorla LA. Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms & profiles. .
  2. Armstrong JG, Putnam FW, Carlson EB, Libero DZ, Smith SR. Development and validation of a measure of adolescent dissociation: the Adolescent Dissociative Experiences Scale.. J Nerv Ment Dis 1997 Aug;185(8):491-7.
  3. Arvidson J, Kinniburgh K, Howard K, Spinazzola J, Strothers H, Evans M. Treatment of complex trauma in young children: Developmental and cultural considerations in application of the ARC intervention model. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma 2011;4(1):34–51.
  4. Bae Y. Test Review: Children’s Depression Inventory 2 (CDI 2). Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment 2012;30(3):304–308.
  5. Banks MR, Banks WA. The effects of animal-assisted therapy on loneliness in an elderly population in long-term care facilities.. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2002 Jul;57(7):M428-32.
    doi: 10.1093/gerona/57.7.M428pubmed: 12084804google scholar: lookup
  6. Becker-Weidman A, Hughes D. Dyadic developmental psychotherapy: An effective and evidence-based treatment - comments in response to mercer and Pignotti. Child & Family Social Work 2010;15(1):6–11.
  7. Beetz A, Uvnäs-Moberg K, Julius H, Kotrschal K. Psychosocial and psychophysiological effects of human-animal interactions: the possible role of oxytocin.. Front Psychol 2012;3:234.
    pmc: PMC3408111pubmed: 22866043doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00234google scholar: lookup
  8. Blaustein ME, Kinniburgh KM. Treating traumatic stress in children and adolescents: How to foster resilience through attachment, self-regulation, and competency. .
  9. Cary CE, Mcmillen JC. The data behind the dissemination: A systematic review of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy for use with children and youth. Children & Youth Services Review 2012;34(4):748–757.
  10. Cloitre M, Courtois CA, Charuvastra A, Carapezza R, Stolbach BC, Green BL. Treatment of complex PTSD: results of the ISTSS expert clinician survey on best practices.. J Trauma Stress 2011 Dec;24(6):615-27.
    doi: 10.1002/jts.20697pubmed: 22147449google scholar: lookup
  11. Cloitre M, Courtois CA, Ford JD, Green BL, Alexander P, Briere J, Spinazzola J. The ISTSS expert consensus treatment guidelines for complex PTSD in adults. .
  12. Cohen JA, Deblinger E, Mannarino AP, Steer RA. A multisite, randomized controlled trial for children with sexual abuse-related PTSD symptoms.. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 2004 Apr;43(4):393-402.
  13. Cohen JC, Mannarino AP, Deblinger E. Treating trauma and traumatic grief in children and adolescents. .
  14. Cohen JA, Mannarino AP, Kliethermes M, Murray LA. Trauma-focused CBT for youth with complex trauma.. Child Abuse Negl 2012 Jun;36(6):528-41.
  15. Cook A, Spinazzola J, Ford J, Lanktree C, Blaustein M, Cloitre M. Complex trauma. Psychiatric Annals 2005;35(5):390–398.
  16. Courtois CA. Complex trauma, complex reactions: Assessment and treatment. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, & Policy 2004;41(4):412–425.
  17. DeRosa R, Pelcovitz D. Group treatment for chronically traumatized adolescents: Igniting SPARCS of change. Treating Traumatized Children: Risk, Resilience & Recovery .
    doi: 10.4324/9780203893104google scholar: lookup
  18. Dietz TJ, Davis D, Pennings J. Evaluating animal-assisted therapy in group treatment for child sexual abuse.. J Child Sex Abus 2012;21(6):665-83.
    doi: 10.1080/10538712.2012.726700pubmed: 23194140google scholar: lookup
  19. Dutton MA, Bermudez D, Matas A, Majid H, Myers NL. Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction for Low-Income, Predominantly African American Women With PTSD and a History of Intimate Partner Violence.. Cogn Behav Pract 2013 Feb 1;20(1):23-32.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cbpra.2011.08.003pmc: PMC3772725pubmed: 24043922google scholar: lookup
  20. Emerson D, Hopper E. Overcoming trauma through yoga: Reclaiming your body. 2011.
  21. Filan SL, Llewellyn-Jones RH. Animal-assisted therapy for dementia: a review of the literature.. Int Psychogeriatr 2006 Dec;18(4):597-611.
    doi: 10.1017/S1041610206003322pubmed: 16640796google scholar: lookup
  22. Ford JD. An affective cognitive neuroscience-based approach to PTSD. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 2015;29(1):68–91.
    doi: 10.1891/0889-8391.29.1.68google scholar: lookup
  23. Ford JD, Courtois CA. Treating complex traumatic stress disorders in children and adolescents. .
  24. Ford JD, Russo E. Trauma-focused, present-centered, emotional self-regulation approach to integrated treatment for posttraumatic stress and addiction: trauma adaptive recovery group education and therapy (TARGET).. Am J Psychother 2006;60(4):335-55.
  25. Gapen M, van der Kolk B, Hamlin E, Hirshberg L, Suvak M, Spinazzola J. A pilot study of neurofeedback for chronic PTSD. Applied Psychophysiology Biofeedback 2016, January 19, pp. 1–11.
    doi: 10.1007/s10484-015-9326-5google scholar: lookup
  26. Gioia GA, Isquith PK, Guy SC, Kenworthy L. Test review: Behavior rating inventory of executive functioning. Child Neuoropsychology 2000;6(3):235–238.
    doi: 10.1076/chin.6.3.235.3152google scholar: lookup
  27. Grossman FK, Spinazzola J, Zucker M, Hopper E. Treating adult survivors of childhood emotional abuse and neglect: A new framework.. Am J Orthopsychiatry 2017;87(1):86-93.
    doi: 10.1037/ort0000225pubmed: 28080123google scholar: lookup
  28. Habib M, Labruna V, Newman J. Complex histories and complex presentations: Implementation of a manually-guided group treatment for traumatized adolescents. Journal of Family Violence 2013;28:717–728.
    doi: 10.1007/s10896-013-9532-ygoogle scholar: lookup
  29. Hamama L, Hamama-Raz Y, Dagan K, Greenfeld H, Rubinstein C, Ben-Ezra M. A preliminary study of group intervention along with basic canine training among traumatized teenagers: A 3-month longitudinal study. Children and Youth Services Review 2011;33(10):1975–1980.
  30. Hodgdon HB, Kinniburgh K, Gabowitz D, Blaustein ME, Spinazzola J. Development and implementation of trauma-informed programming in youth residential treatment centers using the ARC framework. Journal of Family Violence 2013;28(7):679–692.
    doi: 10.1007/s10896-013-9531-zgoogle scholar: lookup
  31. Hodgdon HB, Spinazzola J, Musicaro R, Rogel A, Suvak M, van der Kolk B. Impact of neurofeedback on executive function and trauma related symptoms among children with histories of complex trauma. 2015.
  32. Hodgdon HB, Blaustein M, Kinniburgh K, Peterson ML, Spinazzola J. Application of the ARC model with adopted children: Supporting resiliency and family well being. Journal of Child and Adolescent Trauma 2016;9(1):43–53.
    doi: 10.1007/s40653-015-0050-3google scholar: lookup
  33. Huang L, Speicher C, Habib M, Silver P, Earle L. Complex trauma, children, and the health home option: Moving research and practice to policy. 2017.
  34. IFC MARCO. Evaluation of the National Child Traumatic Stress Initiative: FY 2010 annual progress report, executive summary. 2010.
  35. Kagan R. Real life heroes: Toolkit for treating traumatic stress in children and families. 2017.
  36. Kagan R, Douglas A, Hornik J, Kratz S. Real life heroes pilot study: Evaluation of a treatment model for children with traumatic stress. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma 2008;1:5–22.
    doi: 10.1080/19361520801929845google scholar: lookup
  37. Kaiser E, Gillette C, Spinazzola J. A controlled pilot-outcome study of sensory integration (SI) in the treatment of complex adaptation to traumatic stress. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma 2010;19:699–720.
  38. Kearney DJ, McDermott K, Malte C, Martinez M, Simpson TL. Effects of participation in a mindfulness program for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled pilot study.. J Clin Psychol 2013 Jan;69(1):14-27.
    pubmed: 22930491doi: 10.1002/jclp.21911google scholar: lookup
  39. Kemp K, Signal T, Botros H, Taylor N, Prentice K. Equine facilitated therapy with children and adolescents who have been sexually abused: A program evaluation study. Journal of Child and Family Studies 2014;23(3):558–566.
    doi: 10.1007/s10826-013-9718-1google scholar: lookup
  40. Kendall E, Maujean A, Pepping CA, Downes M, Lakhani A, Byrne J, Macfarlane K. A systematic review of the efficacy of equine-assisted interventions on psychological outcomes. European Journal of Psychotherapy & Counselling 2015;1–23.
  41. Kirby M. Gestalt equine psychotherapy. Gestalt Journal of Australia and New Zealand 2010;6(2):60–68.
  42. Kovacs M. Children’s depression inventory (CDI-2) manual. 2010.
  43. Kruger KA, Serpell JA. Animal-assisted interventions in mental health: Definitions and theoretical foundations. 2010.
  44. Lande RG, Williams LB, Francis JL, Gragnani C, Morin ML. Efficacy of biofeedback for post-traumatic stress disorder.. Complement Ther Med 2010 Dec;18(6):256-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ctim.2010.08.004pubmed: 21130362google scholar: lookup
  45. Lentini JA, Knox MS. Equine-facilitated psychotherapy with children and adolescents: An update and literature review. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health 2015;10(3):278–305.
  46. Levine P. Waking the tiger: Healing trauma. 1997.
  47. McCullough L, Risley-Curtiss C, Rorke J. Equine facilitated psychotherapy: A pilot study of effect on posttraumatic stress symptoms in maltreated youth. Journal of Infant, Child, and Adolescent Psychotherapy 2015;14(2):158–173.
  48. Metcalf O, Varker T, Forbes D, Phelps A, Dell L, DiBattista A, Ralph N, O'Donnell M. Efficacy of Fifteen Emerging Interventions for the Treatment of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Systematic Review.. J Trauma Stress 2016 Feb;29(1):88-92.
    doi: 10.1002/jts.22070pubmed: 26749196google scholar: lookup
  49. Mezzich AC. The dysregulation inventory: A new scale to assess the risk for substance abuse disorder. Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse 2001;10(4):35–43.
    doi: 10.1300/J029v10n04_04google scholar: lookup
  50. Murphy K, Anderson Moore K, Redd Z, Malm K. Trauma-informed child welfare systems and children's well-being: A longitudinal evaluation of KVC's bridging the way home initiative. Children and Youth Services Review 2017;75:23–34.
  51. National Child Traumatic Stress Network. Complex trauma. 2017.
  52. Nevins R, Finch S, Hickling EJ, Barnett SD. The Saratoga WarHorse project: a case study of the treatment of psychological distress in a veteran of Operation Iraqi Freedom.. Adv Mind Body Med 2013 Fall;27(4):22-5.
    pubmed: 24067322
  53. Nimer J, Lundahl B. Animal-assisted therapy: A meta-analysis. Anthrozoös 2007;20(3):225–238.
    doi: 10.2752/089279307X224773google scholar: lookup
  54. O'Haire ME. Animal-assisted intervention for autism spectrum disorder: a systematic literature review.. J Autism Dev Disord 2013 Jul;43(7):1606-22.
    doi: 10.1007/s10803-012-1707-5pubmed: 23124442google scholar: lookup
  55. O'Haire ME, McKenzie SJ, Beck AM, Slaughter V. Social behaviors increase in children with autism in the presence of animals compared to toys.. PLoS One 2013;8(2):e57010.
  56. O'Haire ME, Guérin NA, Kirkham AC. Animal-Assisted Intervention for trauma: a systematic literature review.. Front Psychol 2015;6:1121.
    pmc: PMC4528099pubmed: 26300817doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01121google scholar: lookup
  57. Ogden P, Minton K, Pain C. Trauma and the body: A sensorimotor approach to psychotherapy (Norton series on interpersonal neurobiology). 2006a.
  58. Ogden P, Pain C, Fisher J. A sensorimotor approach to the treatment of trauma and dissociation.. Psychiatr Clin North Am 2006 Mar;29(1):263-79, xi-xii.
    doi: 10.1016/j.psc.2005.10.012pubmed: 16530597google scholar: lookup
  59. Parish-Plass N. Animal-assisted therapy with children suffering from insecure attachment due to abuse and neglect: a method to lower the risk of intergenerational transmission of abuse?. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry 2008 Jan;13(1):7-30.
    doi: 10.1177/1359104507086338pubmed: 18411863google scholar: lookup
  60. Pearlman LA, Courtois CA. Clinical applications of the attachment framework: Relational treatment of complex trauma.. J Trauma Stress 2005 Oct;18(5):449-59.
    doi: 10.1002/jts.20052pubmed: 16281242google scholar: lookup
  61. Price M, Spinazzola J, Musicaro R, Turner J, Suvak M, Emerson D, van der Kolk B. Effectiveness of an Extended Yoga Treatment for Women with Chronic Posttraumatic Stress Disorder.. J Altern Complement Med 2017 Apr;23(4):300-309.
    doi: 10.1089/acm.2015.0266pmc: PMC5393408pubmed: 28121466google scholar: lookup
  62. Putnam FW. Dissociation in children and adolescents: A developmental perspective. 1997.
  63. Pynoos RS, Rodriguez N, Steinberg AS. The UCLA PTSD reaction index for DSM IV (revision 1). 1998.
  64. Rodenburg R, Benjamin A, de Roos C, Meijer AM, Stams GJ. Efficacy of EMDR in children: a meta-analysis.. Clin Psychol Rev 2009 Nov;29(7):599-606.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2009.06.008pubmed: 19616353google scholar: lookup
  65. Saxe G, Ellis H, Brown A. Trauma systems therapy for children and teens. 2015.
  66. Signal T, Taylor N, Botros H, Prentice K, Lazarus K. Whispering to horses: Childhood sexual abuse, depression and the efficacy of equine facilitated therapy. Sexual Abuse in Australia and New Zealand 2013;5(1):24–32.
  67. Souter MA, Miller MD. Do animal-assisted activities effectively treat depression? A meta-analysis. Anthrozoös 2007;20(2):167–180.
    doi: 10.2752/175303707X207954google scholar: lookup
  68. Spinazzola J, Blaustein M, van der Kolk BA. Posttraumatic stress disorder treatment outcome research: The study of unrepresentative samples?. J Trauma Stress 2005 Oct;18(5):425-36.
    pubmed: 16281240doi: 10.1002/jts.20050google scholar: lookup
  69. Spinazzola J, Ford JD, Zucker M, van der Kolk B, Silva S, Smith SF, Blaustein M. National survey on complex trauma exposure, outcome, and intervention among children and adolescents. Psychiatric Annals 2005;35(5):433–439.
  70. Spinazzola J, Rhodes AM, Emerson D, Earle E, Monroe K. Application of yoga in residential treatment of traumatized youth.. J Am Psychiatr Nurses Assoc 2011 Nov-Dec;17(6):431-44.
    doi: 10.1177/1078390311418359pubmed: 21868714google scholar: lookup
  71. Spinazzola J, Habib M, Knoverek A, Arvidson J, Nisenbaum J, Wentworth R, Pond A. The heart of the matter: Complex trauma in child welfare. Child Welfare 360o Winter 2013, 8-9, 37.
  72. Stone L. Measuring somatic awareness: Psychometric validation of the somatic awareness measure (SAM)(doctoral dissertation). 2014.
  73. Tan G, Dao TK, Farmer L, Sutherland RJ, Gevirtz R. Heart rate variability (HRV) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): a pilot study.. Appl Psychophysiol Biofeedback 2011 Mar;36(1):27-35.
    doi: 10.1007/s10484-010-9141-ypubmed: 20680439google scholar: lookup
  74. Trotter K. Harnessing the power of equine-assisted counseling: Adding animal assisted therapy to your practice. 2012.
  75. van der Kolk BA. Developmental trauma disorder: Toward a rational diagnosis for children with complex trauma histories. Psychiatric Annals 2005;53(5):401–408.
  76. van der Kolk B. The body keeps the score: Brain, mind, and body in the healing of trauma. 2014.
  77. van der Kolk BA, Stone L, West J, Rhodes A, Emerson D, Suvak M, Spinazzola J. Yoga as an adjunctive treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled trial.. J Clin Psychiatry 2014 Jun;75(6):e559-65.
    pubmed: 25004196doi: 10.4088/jcp.13m08561google scholar: lookup
  78. van der Kolk BA, Hodgdon H, Gapen M, Musicaro R, Suvak MK, Hamlin E, Spinazzola J. A Randomized Controlled Study of Neurofeedback for Chronic PTSD.. PLoS One 2016;11(12):e0166752.
  79. Warner E, Koomar J, Lary B, Cook A. Can the body change the score? Application of sensory modulation principles in the treatment of traumatized adolescents in residential settings. Journal of Family Violence 2013;28(7):729–738.
    doi: 10.1007/s10896-013-9535-8google scholar: lookup
  80. Warner E, Spinazzola J, Westcott A, Gunn C, Hodgdon H. The body can change the score: Empirical support for somatic regulation in the treatment of traumatized adolescents. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma 2014;7(4):237–246.
    doi: 10.1007/s40653-014-0030-zgoogle scholar: lookup
  81. Way IF, Applegate B, Cai X, Franck LK, Black-Pond C, Yelsma P, Roberts E, Hyter Y, Muliett M. Children’s alexithymia measure (CAM): A new instrument for screening difficulties with emotional expression. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma 2010;3:303–318.
  82. Wood L, Giles-Corti B, Bulsara M. The pet connection: pets as a conduit for social capital?. Soc Sci Med 2005 Sep;61(6):1159-73.
  83. Yorke J, Nugent W, Strand E, Bolen R, New J, Davis C. Equine-assisted therapy and its impact on cortisol levels of children and horses: A pilot study and meta-analysis. Early Child Development and Care 2013;183(7):874–894.
  84. Yount R, Ritchie EC, Laurent MS, Chumley P, Olmert MD. The role of service dog training in the treatment of combat-related PTSD. Psychiatric Annals 2013;43(6):292–295.

Citations

This article has been cited 5 times.
  1. Tepper D, Shnookal J, Howell T, Bennett P. Can Interacting with Animals Improve Executive Functions? A Systematic Review.. Animals (Basel) 2023 Jun 23;13(13).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13132080pubmed: 37443878google scholar: lookup
  2. Kearney BE, Lanius RA. The brain-body disconnect: A somatic sensory basis for trauma-related disorders.. Front Neurosci 2022;16:1015749.
    doi: 10.3389/fnins.2022.1015749pubmed: 36478879google scholar: lookup
  3. Haig L, Skinner K. Use of Equine-Assisted Services to Improve Outcomes Among At-Risk and Indigenous Youth: A Scoping Review.. Front Public Health 2022;10:730644.
    doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.730644pubmed: 35419329google scholar: lookup
  4. Hediger K, Wagner J, Künzi P, Haefeli A, Theis F, Grob C, Pauli E, Gerger H. Effectiveness of animal-assisted interventions for children and adults with post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis.. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2021;12(1):1879713.
    doi: 10.1080/20008198.2021.1879713pubmed: 34377357google scholar: lookup
  5. White-Lewis S. Equine-assisted therapies using horses as healers: A concept analysis.. Nurs Open 2020 Jan;7(1):58-67.
    doi: 10.1002/nop2.377pubmed: 31871691google scholar: lookup