FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
International journal of molecular sciences2026; 27(1); 520; doi: 10.3390/ijms27010520

Exosome and miRNA Content Engagement in the Physical Exercise Response: What Is Known to Date in Atheltic Horses?

Abstract: To date, there is extensive scientific evidence affirming that physical exercise plays a fundamental role in both the prevention and treatment of various pathological conditions in humans as well as in animals. It is understood that the advantages of movement and exercise have a multifactorial origin and they depend on a category of bioactive molecules vehicolated by extracellular microvesicles known as exosomes. The exosomes act as potential delivery systems for messages within the organism. These findings have drawn significant attention, leading researchers to further investigate the role of exosomes, delving into the study of microRNAs (miRNAs). In particular, these molecules are found inside exosomes and play a key role in cellular communication, with an impact on numerous physiological functions of the organism. It has been suggested that during physical exercise, the expression levels of miRNAs increase in parallel with those of exosomes, and their release enables intercellular communication in multicellular organisms, thereby regulating both cell growth and division. Studies have not only been carried out in humans, but also in laboratory animals and in mammals following exercise. Specifically, a change in exosome expression has been found in athletic horses following physical exercise. The aim of the current review was to highlight what is known about the role played by exosomes and miRNAs during physical exercise in equine species by considering, on a broad scale, the published data on this topic, including comparative data from humans and rodent models.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2026-01-04 PubMed ID: 41516392PubMed Central: PMC12786952DOI: 10.3390/ijms27010520Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Objective Overview

  • This research article reviews the current knowledge on how exosomes and microRNAs (miRNAs) respond to physical exercise in athletic horses.
  • It synthesizes findings from equine studies and compares them with data from humans and rodent models to better understand the role of these bioactive molecules in exercise-induced physiological changes.

Introduction to the Role of Exercise and Bioactive Molecules

  • Physical exercise is well recognized for its benefits in preventing and treating diseases in both humans and animals.
  • The physiological advantages of exercise are derived from multiple mechanisms involving diverse bioactive molecules.
  • Among these molecules, exosomes — a type of extracellular microvesicle — are crucial as carriers or delivery systems for molecular messages within the body.

What are Exosomes and miRNAs?

  • Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles released from cells that facilitate intercellular communication by transporting proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
  • MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNA molecules found inside exosomes that regulate gene expression by targeting messenger RNAs, influencing various cellular processes.
  • miRNAs contained within exosomes can modulate numerous physiological functions by affecting cell growth, proliferation, and communication.

Exercise-Induced Changes in Exosomes and miRNAs

  • Studies have shown that physical exercise leads to an increase in the levels of circulating exosomes and associated miRNAs.
  • This release is thought to enhance intercellular communication, helping coordinate physiological adaptations across different tissues and organs during and after exercise.
  • Such changes have been observed across different species including humans, laboratory rodents, and mammals like horses, suggesting a conserved biological response.

Focus on Athletic Horses

  • Specific studies in athletic horses have identified alterations in exosome concentration and miRNA profiles following bouts of physical activity.
  • These changes are implicated in modulating muscle repair, inflammation, immune response, and possibly the performance capacity of horses.
  • The research investigates how these molecular adaptations could serve as biomarkers for fitness, recovery, or even training optimization.

Comparative Insights from Humans and Rodents

  • The review contrasts equine data with findings from humans and rodent models to understand common pathways and species-specific responses.
  • Such comparisons help elucidate fundamental biological roles of exosomes and miRNAs during exercise and aid translation of the research between species.

Conclusions and Future Directions

  • Exosomes and miRNAs are emerging as key mediators in the exercise response, facilitating communication and regulation of physiological adaptation in equine athletes.
  • Current knowledge, though growing, is still limited, warranting further research to clarify mechanisms and potential applications in veterinary sport medicine.
  • Future work could lead to novel biomarkers or therapeutic targets to enhance athletic performance and recovery in horses.

Cite This Article

APA
(2026). Exosome and miRNA Content Engagement in the Physical Exercise Response: What Is Known to Date in Atheltic Horses? Int J Mol Sci, 27(1), 520. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms27010520

Publication

International journal of molecular sciences
ISSN: 1422-0067
NlmUniqueID: 101092791
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 27
Issue: 1
PII: 520

Researcher Affiliations

MeSH Terms

  • Exosomes / metabolism
  • Exosomes / genetics
  • Animals
  • MicroRNAs / genetics
  • MicroRNAs / metabolism
  • Physical Conditioning, Animal / physiology
  • Horses / physiology
  • Humans
  • Exercise
  • Cell Communication

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

This article includes 112 references
  1. Arfuso F, Giudice E, Panzera M, Rizzo M, Fazio F, Piccione G, Giannetto C. Interleukin-1Ra (Il-1Ra) and Serum Cortisol Level Relationship in Horse as Dynamic Adaptive Response during Physical Exercise.. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 2022;243:110368.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2021.110368pubmed: 34922262google scholar: lookup
  2. Henshall C, Randle H, Francis N, Freire R. The Effect of Stress and Exercise on the Learning Performance of Horses.. Sci. Rep. 2022;12:1918.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-03582-4pmc: PMC8816904pubmed: 35121736google scholar: lookup
  3. Arfuso F, Assenza A, Fazio F, Rizzo M, Giannetto C, Piccione G. Dynamic Change of Serum Levels of Some Branched-Chain Amino Acids and Tryptophan in Athletic Horses After Different Physical Exercises.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2019;77:12–16.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2019.02.006pubmed: 31133304google scholar: lookup
  4. Sellami M, Gasmi M, Denham J, Hayes L.D, Stratton D, Padulo J, Bragazzi N. Effects of Acute and Chronic Exercise on Immunological Parameters in the Elderly Aged: Can Physical Activity Counteract the Effects of Aging?. Front. Immunol. 2018;9:2187.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02187pmc: PMC6191490pubmed: 30364079google scholar: lookup
  5. Noakes T.D. Physiological Models to Understand Exercise Fatigue and the Adaptations That Predict or Enhance Athletic Performance.. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports. 2000;10:123–145.
    doi: 10.1034/j.1600-0838.2000.010003123.xpubmed: 10843507google scholar: lookup
  6. Malinowski K. Effects of training/exercise/stress on plasma cortisol and lactate in Standardbred yearlings.. J. Anim. Sci. 1987;65:222.
  7. Mustafina L.J, Naumov V.A, Cieszczyk P, Popov D.V, Lyubaeva E.V, Kostryukova E.S, Fedotovskaya O.N, Druzhevskaya A.M, Astratenkova I.V, Glotov A.S. AGTR2 gene polymorphism is associated with muscle fibre composition, athletic status and aerobic performance.. Exp. Physiol. 2014;99:1042–1052.
    doi: 10.1113/expphysiol.2014.079335pubmed: 24887114google scholar: lookup
  8. Ogino S, Ogino N, Tomizuka K, Eitoku M, Okada Y, Tanaka Y, Suganuma N, Ogino K. SOD2 mRNA as a potential biomarker for exercise: Interventional and cross-sectional research in healthy subjects.. J. Clin. Biochem. Nutr. 2021;69:137–144.
    doi: 10.3164/jcbn.21-24pmc: PMC8482385pubmed: 34616105google scholar: lookup
  9. Wang Y, Yang Y, Song Y. Cardioprotective Effects of Exercise: The Role of Irisin and Exosome.. Curr. Vasc. Pharmacol. 2024;22:316–334.
    doi: 10.2174/0115701611285736240516101803pubmed: 38808716google scholar: lookup
  10. Qin S, Tian Z, Boidin M, Buckley B.J.R, Thijssen D.H.J, Lip G.Y.H. Irisin Is an Effector Molecule in Exercise Rehabilitation Following Myocardial Infarction (Review). Front. Physiol. 2022;13:935772.
    doi: 10.3389/fphys.2022.935772pmc: PMC9276959pubmed: 35845994google scholar: lookup
  11. Gurunathan S, Kang M.-H, Jeyaraj M, Qasim M, Kim J.-H. Review of the Isolation, Characterization, Biological Function, and Multifarious Therapeutic Approaches of Exosomes.. Cells. 2019;8:307.
    doi: 10.3390/cells8040307pmc: PMC6523673pubmed: 30987213google scholar: lookup
  12. Nederveen J.P, Warnier G, Di Carlo A, Nilsson M.I, Tarnopolsky M.A. Extracellular Vesicles and Exosomes: Insights From Exercise Science.. Front. Physiol. 2020;11:604274.
    doi: 10.3389/fphys.2020.604274pmc: PMC7882633pubmed: 33597890google scholar: lookup
  13. Frühbeis C, Helmig S, Tug S, Simon P, Krämer-Albers E.-M. Physical Exercise Induces Rapid Release of Small Extracellular Vesicles into the Circulation.. J. Extracell. Vesicles. 2015;4:28239.
    doi: 10.3402/jev.v4.28239pmc: PMC4491306pubmed: 26142461google scholar: lookup
  14. Brahmer A, Neuberger E, Esch-Heisser L, Haller N, Jorgensen M.M, Baek R, Möbius W, Simon P, Krämer-Albers E.M. Platelets, endothelial cells and leukocytes contribute to the exercise-triggered release of extracellular vesicles into the circulation.. J. Extracell. Vesicles. 2019;8:1615820.
    doi: 10.1080/20013078.2019.1615820pmc: PMC6542154pubmed: 31191831google scholar: lookup
  15. Raposo G, Stoorvolgel W. Extracellular vesicles: Exosomes, macrovesicles, and friends.. J. Cell Biol. 2013;200:373–383.
    doi: 10.1083/jcb.201211138pmc: PMC3575529pubmed: 23420871google scholar: lookup
  16. Harding C, Hauser J, Stahl P. Receptor-mediated endocytosis of transferrin and recycling of the transferrin receptor in rat reticulocytes. J. Cell Biol. 1983;97:329–339.
    doi: 10.1083/jcb.97.2.329pmc: PMC2112509pubmed: 6309857google scholar: lookup
  17. Vella LJ, Sharples RA, Nisbet RM, Cappai R, Hill AF. The Role of Exosomes in the Processing of Proteins Associated with Neurodegenerative Diseases. Eur. Biophys. J. 2008;37:323–332.
    doi: 10.1007/s00249-007-0246-zpubmed: 18064447google scholar: lookup
  18. McGivney BA, Griffin ME, Gough KF, McGivney CL, Browne JA, Hill EW, Katz LM. Evaluation of microRNA Expression in Plasma and Skeletal Muscle of Thoroughbred Racehorses in Training. BMC Vet. Res. 2017;13:347.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-017-1277-zpmc: PMC5700565pubmed: 29166903google scholar: lookup
  19. Yuan X, Yao X, Zeng Y, Wang J, Ren W, Wang T, Li T, Yang L, Yang X, Meng J. The Impact of the Competition on miRNA, Proteins, and Metabolites in the Blood Exosomes of the Yili Horse. Genes 2025;16:224.
    doi: 10.3390/genes16020224pmc: PMC11855450pubmed: 40004554google scholar: lookup
  20. Welsh JA, Goberdhan DCI, O’Driscoll L, Buzas EI, Blenkiron C, Bussolati B, Cai H, Di Vizio D, Driedonks TAP, Erdbrügger U. Minimal Information for Studies of Extracellular Vesicles (MISEV2023): From Basic to Advanced Approaches. J. Extracell. Vesicles 2024;13:e12404.
    doi: 10.1002/jev2.12404pmc: PMC10850029pubmed: 38326288google scholar: lookup
  21. Contentin R, Jammes M, Bourdon B, Cassé F, Bianchi A, Audigié F, Branly T, Velot É, Galéra P. Bone Marrow MSC Secretome Increases Equine Articular Chondrocyte Collagen Accumulation and Their Migratory Capacities. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2022;23:5795.
    doi: 10.3390/ijms23105795pmc: PMC9146805pubmed: 35628604google scholar: lookup
  22. Connard SS, Gaesser AM, Clarke EJ, Linardi RL, Even KM, Engiles JB, Koch DW, Peffers MJ, Ortved KF. Plasma and Synovial Fluid Extracellular Vesicles Display Altered microRNA Profiles in Horses with Naturally Occurring Post-Traumatic Osteoarthritis: An Exploratory Study. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2024;262:S83–S96.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.24.02.0102pmc: PMC11132921pubmed: 38593834google scholar: lookup
  23. Brahmer A, Neuberger EWI, Simon P, Krämer-Albers E-M. Considerations for the Analysis of Small Extracellular Vesicles in Physical Exercise. Front. Physiol. 2020;11:576150.
    doi: 10.3389/fphys.2020.576150pmc: PMC7744614pubmed: 33343383google scholar: lookup
  24. Safdar A, Tarnopolsky MA. Exosomes as Mediators of the Systemic Adaptations to Endurance Exercise. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med. 2018;8:a029827.
    doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a029827pmc: PMC5830902pubmed: 28490541google scholar: lookup
  25. Bittel DC, Jaiswal JK. Contribution of Extracellular Vesicles in Rebuilding Injured Muscles. Front. Physiol. 2019;10:828.
    doi: 10.3389/fphys.2019.00828pmc: PMC6658195pubmed: 31379590google scholar: lookup
  26. Familtseva A, Jeremic N, Tyagi SC. Exosomes: Cell-Created Drug Delivery Systems. Mol. Cell Biochem. 2019;459:1–6.
    doi: 10.1007/s11010-019-03545-4pubmed: 31073888google scholar: lookup
  27. Admyre C, Johansson SM, Qazi KR, Filén J-J, Lahesmaa R, Norman M, Neve EPA, Scheynius A, Gabrielsson S. Exosomes with Immune Modulatory Features Are Present in Human Breast Milk. J. Immunol. 2007;179:1969–1978.
    doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.179.3.1969pubmed: 17641064google scholar: lookup
  28. Pegtel DM, Gould SJ. Exosomes. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 2019;88:487–514.
    doi: 10.1146/annurev-biochem-013118-111902pubmed: 31220978google scholar: lookup
  29. Hade MD, Suire CN, Suo Z. Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes: Applications in Regenerative Medicine. Cells 2021;10:1959.
    doi: 10.3390/cells10081959pmc: PMC8393426pubmed: 34440728google scholar: lookup
  30. Liang Y, Duan L, Lu J, Xia J. Engineering Exosomes for Targeted Drug Delivery. Theranostics 2021;11:3183–3195.
    doi: 10.7150/thno.52570pmc: PMC7847680pubmed: 33537081google scholar: lookup
  31. Masyuk AI, Masyuk TV, Larusso NF. Exosomes in the Pathogenesis, Diagnostics and Therapeutics of Liver Diseases. J. Hepatol. 2013;59:621–625.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2013.03.028pmc: PMC3831338pubmed: 23557871google scholar: lookup
  32. Evans DL. Cardiovascular Adaptations to Exercise and Training. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 1985;1:513–531.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30748-4pubmed: 3877552google scholar: lookup
  33. Pacholewska A, Mach N, Mata X, Vaiman A, Schibler L, Barrey E, Gerber V. Novel Equine Tissue miRNAs and Breed-Related miRNA Expressed in Serum. BMC Genom. 2016;17:831.
    doi: 10.1186/s12864-016-3168-2pmc: PMC5080802pubmed: 27782799google scholar: lookup
  34. Mondal J, Pillarisetti S, Junnuthula V, Saha M, Hwang SR, Park I-K, Lee Y-K. Hybrid Exosomes, Exosome-like Nanovesicles and Engineered Exosomes for Therapeutic Applications. J. Control. Release. 2023;353:1127–1149.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.12.027pubmed: 36528193google scholar: lookup
  35. Humblet M-F, Vandeputte S, Fecher-Bourgeois F, Léonard P, Gosset C, Balenghien T, Durand B, Saegerman C. Estimating the Economic Impact of a Possible Equine and Human Epidemic of West Nile Virus Infection in Belgium. Euro Surveill. 2016;21:30309.
    doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2016.21.31.30309pmc: PMC4998509pubmed: 27526394google scholar: lookup
  36. Li S, Lv D, Yang H, Lu Y, Jia Y. A Review on the Current Literature Regarding the Value of Exosome miRNAs in Various Diseases. Ann. Med. 2023;55:2232993.
    doi: 10.1080/07853890.2023.2232993pmc: PMC10339768pubmed: 37435923google scholar: lookup
  37. Zhan D, Lin M, Chen J, Cai W, Liu J, Fang Y, Li Y, Wu B, Wang G. Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1α Regulates PI3K/AKT Signaling through microRNA-32-5p/PTEN and Affects Nucleus Pulposus Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis. Exp. Ther. Med. 2021;21:646.
    doi: 10.3892/etm.2021.10078pmc: PMC8097185pubmed: 33968177google scholar: lookup
  38. Yeri A, Courtright A, Reiman R, Carlson E, Beecroft T, Janss A, Siniard A, Richholt R, Balak C, Rozowsky J. Total Extracellular Small RNA Profiles from Plasma, Saliva, and Urine of Healthy Subjects. Sci. Rep. 2017;7:44061.
    doi: 10.1038/srep44061pmc: PMC5356006pubmed: 28303895google scholar: lookup
  39. Schmitz B, Schelleckes K, Nedele J, Thorwesten L, Klose A, Lenders M, Krüger M, Brand E, Brand S-M. Dose-Response of High-Intensity Training (HIT) on Atheroprotective miRNA-126 Levels. Front. Physiol. 2017;8:349.
    doi: 10.3389/fphys.2017.00349pmc: PMC5447767pubmed: 28611681google scholar: lookup
  40. Cui S, Sun B, Yin X, Guo X, Chao D, Zhang C, Zhang C-Y, Chen X, Ma J. Time-Course Responses of Circulating microRNAs to Three Resistance Training Protocols in Healthy Young Men. Sci. Rep. 2017;7:2203.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-02294-ypmc: PMC5438360pubmed: 28526870google scholar: lookup
  41. Soplinska A, Zareba L, Wicik Z, Eyileten C, Jakubik D, Siller-Matula JM, De Rosa S, Malek LA, Postula M. MicroRNAs as Biomarkers of Systemic Changes in Response to Endurance Exercise-A Comprehensive Review. Diagnostics 2020;10:813.
    doi: 10.3390/diagnostics10100813pmc: PMC7602033pubmed: 33066215google scholar: lookup
  42. Ma X, Wang J, Li J, Ma C, Chen S, Lei W, Yang Y, Liu S, Bihl J, Chen C. Loading MiR-210 in Endothelial Progenitor Cells Derived Exosomes Boosts Their Beneficial Effects on Hypoxia/Reoxygeneation-Injured Human Endothelial Cells via Protecting Mitochondrial Function. Cell Physiol. Biochem. 2018;46:664–675.
    doi: 10.1159/000488635pubmed: 29621777google scholar: lookup
  43. van Niel G, D’Angelo G, Raposo G. Shedding Light on the Cell Biology of Extracellular Vesicles. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2018;19:213–228.
    doi: 10.1038/nrm.2017.125pubmed: 29339798google scholar: lookup
  44. Sapp RM, Shill DD, Roth SM, Hagberg JM. Circulating microRNAs in Acute and Chronic Exercise: More than Mere Biomarkers. J. Appl. Physiol. 2017;122:702–717.
    doi: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00982.2016pubmed: 28035018google scholar: lookup
  45. Denham J, Spencer SJ. Emerging Roles of Extracellular Vesicles in the Intercellular Communication for Exercise-Induced Adaptations. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2020;319:E320–E329.
    doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00215.2020pubmed: 32603601google scholar: lookup
  46. Phillips W, Willms E, Hill AF. Understanding extracellular vesicle and nanoparticle heterogeneity: Novel methods and considerations. Proteomics 2021;21:e2000118.
    doi: 10.1002/pmic.202000118pmc: PMC8365743pubmed: 33857352google scholar: lookup
  47. György B, Szatmári R, Ditrói T, Torma F, Pálóczi K, Balbisi M, Visnovitz T, Koltai E, Nagy P, Buzás EI. The Protein Cargo of Extracellular Vesicles Correlates with the Epigenetic Aging Clock of Exercise Sensitive DNAmFitAge. Biogerontology 2025;26:35.
    doi: 10.1007/s10522-024-10177-9pmc: PMC11711255pubmed: 39775340google scholar: lookup
  48. Lovett J, McColl RS, Durcan P, Vechetti I, Myburgh KH. Analysis of Plasma-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicle Characteristics and microRNA Cargo Following Exercise-Induced Skeletal Muscle Damage in Men. Physiol. Rep. 2024;12:e70056.
    doi: 10.14814/phy2.70056pmc: PMC11415274pubmed: 39304515google scholar: lookup
  49. Burke BI, Ismaeel A, Long DE, Depa LA, Coburn PT, Goh J, Saliu TP, Walton BJ, Vechetti IJ, Peck BD. Extracellular vesicle transfer of miR-1 to adipose tissue modifies lipolytic pathways following resistance exercise. JCI Insight 2024;9:e182589.
    doi: 10.1172/jci.insight.182589pmc: PMC11601556pubmed: 39316445google scholar: lookup
  50. Conkright WR, Kargl CK, Hubal MJ, Tiede DR, Beckner ME, Sterczala AJ, Krajewski KT, Martin BJ, Flanagan SD, Greeves JP. Acute Resistance Exercise Modifies Extracellular Vesicle miRNAs Targeting Anabolic Gene Pathways: A Prospective Cohort Study. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2024;56:1225–1232.
    doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000003408pubmed: 38377006google scholar: lookup
  51. Meza CA, Amador M, McAinch AJ, Begum K, Roy S, Bajpeyi S. Eight weeks of combined exercise training do not alter circulating microRNAs-29a, -133a, -133b, and -155 in young, healthy men. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2022;122:921–933.
    doi: 10.1007/s00421-022-04886-7pubmed: 35015112google scholar: lookup
  52. Horak M, Novak J, Bienertova-Vasku J. Muscle-Specific microRNAs in Skeletal Muscle Development. Dev. Biol. 2016;410:1–13.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2015.12.013pubmed: 26708096google scholar: lookup
  53. Kawanishi N, Tominaga T, Suzuki K. Electrical Pulse Stimulation-Induced Muscle Contraction Alters the microRNA and mRNA Profiles of Circulating Extracellular Vesicles in Mice. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 2023;324:R761–R771.
    doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00121.2022pubmed: 37092746google scholar: lookup
  54. Mytidou C, Koutsoulidou A, Katsioloudi A, Prokopi M, Kapnisis K, Michailidou K, Anayiotos A, Phylactou LA. Muscle-Derived Exosomes Encapsulate myomiRs and Are Involved in Local Skeletal Muscle Tissue Communication. FASEB J. 2021;35:e21279.
    doi: 10.1096/fj.201902468RRpmc: PMC12315491pubmed: 33484211google scholar: lookup
  55. Guescini M, Canonico B, Lucertini F, Maggio S, Annibalini G, Barbieri E, Luchetti F, Papa S, Stocchi V. Muscle Releases Alpha-Sarcoglycan Positive Extracellular Vesicles Carrying miRNAs in the Bloodstream. PLoS ONE 2015;10:e0125094.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0125094pmc: PMC4425492pubmed: 25955720google scholar: lookup
  56. D’Souza RF, Woodhead JST, Zeng N, Blenkiron C, Merry TL, Cameron-Smith D, Mitchell CJ. Circulatory Exosomal miRNA Following Intense Exercise Is Unrelated to Muscle and Plasma miRNA Abundances. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2018;315:E723–E733.
    doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.00138.2018pubmed: 29969318google scholar: lookup
  57. Zhang J-W, Zhang D, Yin H-S, Zhang H, Hong K-Q, Yuan J-P, Yu B-P. Fusobacterium Nucleatum Promotes Esophageal Squamous Cell Carcinoma Progression and Chemoresistance by Enhancing the Secretion of Chemotherapy-Induced Senescence-Associated Secretory Phenotype via Activation of DNA Damage Response Pathway. Gut Microbes 2023;15:2197836.
    doi: 10.1080/19490976.2023.2197836pmc: PMC10078122pubmed: 37017266google scholar: lookup
  58. Mach N, Ramayo-Caldas Y, Clark A, Moroldo M, Robert C, Barrey E, López JM, Le Moyec L. Understanding the Response to Endurance Exercise Using a Systems Biology Approach: Combining Blood Metabolomics, Transcriptomics and miRNomics in Horses. BMC Genom. 2017;18:187.
    doi: 10.1186/s12864-017-3571-3pmc: PMC5316211pubmed: 28212624google scholar: lookup
  59. Wolf T, Baier SR, Zempleni J. The Intestinal Transport of Bovine Milk Exosomes Is Mediated by Endocytosis in Human Colon Carcinoma Caco-2 Cells and Rat Small Intestinal IEC-6 Cells. J. Nutr. 2015;145:2201–2206.
    doi: 10.3945/jn.115.218586pmc: PMC4580964pubmed: 26269243google scholar: lookup
  60. Tian T, Zhu Y-L, Zhou Y-Y, Liang G-F, Wang Y-Y, Hu F-H, Xiao Z-D. Exosome Uptake through Clathrin-Mediated Endocytosis and Macropinocytosis and Mediating miR-21 Delivery. J. Biol. Chem. 2014;289:22258–22267.
    doi: 10.1074/jbc.M114.588046pmc: PMC4139237pubmed: 24951588google scholar: lookup
  61. Mao L, Liao C, Qin J, Gong Y, Zhou Y, Li S, Liu Z, Deng H, Deng W, Sun Q. Phosphorylation of SNX27 by MAPK11/14 Links Cellular Stress-Signaling Pathways with Endocytic Recycling. J. Cell Biol. 2021;220:e202010048.
    doi: 10.1083/jcb.202010048pmc: PMC7901142pubmed: 33605979google scholar: lookup
  62. Russell AP, Lamon S, Boon H, Wada S, Güller I, Brown EL, Chibalin AV, Zierath JR, Snow RJ, Stepto N. Regulation of miRNAs in Human Skeletal Muscle Following Acute Endurance Exercise and Short-Term Endurance Training. J. Physiol. 2013;591:4637–4653.
    doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2013.255695pmc: PMC3784204pubmed: 23798494google scholar: lookup
  63. Su J, Wang Y, Xie J, Chen L, Lin X, Lin J, Xiao X. MicroRNA-30a Inhibits Cell Proliferation in a Sepsis-Induced Acute Kidney Injury Model by Targeting the YAP-TEAD Complex. J. Intensive Med. 2024;4:231–239.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jointm.2023.08.004pmc: PMC11043643pubmed: 38681790google scholar: lookup
  64. Xiao C-T, Lai W-J, Zhu W-A, Wang H. MicroRNA Derived from Circulating Exosomes as Noninvasive Biomarkers for Diagnosing Renal Cell Carcinoma. Onco Targets Ther. 2020;13:10765–10774.
    doi: 10.2147/OTT.S271606pmc: PMC7591082pubmed: 33122915google scholar: lookup
  65. Chen Y, Yin D, Feng X, He S, Zhang L, Chen D. Bioinformatics-Based Construction of Immune-Related microRNA and mRNA Prognostic Models for Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Cancer Manag. Res. 2024;16:1793–1811.
    doi: 10.2147/CMAR.S482688pmc: PMC11687126pubmed: 39741650google scholar: lookup
  66. Kinnunen S, Atalay M, Hyyppä S, Lehmuskero A, Hänninen O, Oksala N. Effects of Prolonged Exercise on Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Defense in Endurance Horse. J. Sports Sci. Med. 2005;4:415–421.
    pmc: PMC3899657pubmed: 24501555
  67. Greening DW, Simpson RJ. Understanding extracellular vesicle diversity—Current status. Expert Rev. Proteom. 2018;15:887–910.
    doi: 10.1080/14789450.2018.1537788pubmed: 30326765google scholar: lookup
  68. Whitham M, Parker BL, Friedrichsen M, Hingst JR, Hjorth M, Hughes WE, Egan CL, Cron L, Watt KI, Kuchel RP. Extracellular Vesicles Provide a Means for Tissue Crosstalk during Exercise. Cell Metab. 2018;27:237–251.e4.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2017.12.001pubmed: 29320704google scholar: lookup
  69. Csala D, Ádám Z, Wilhelm M. The Role of miRNAs and Extracellular Vesicles in Adaptation After Resistance Exercise: A Review. Curr. Issues Mol. Biol. 2025;47:583.
    doi: 10.3390/cimb47080583pmc: PMC12384656pubmed: 40864737google scholar: lookup
  70. Uhlemann M, Möbius-Winkler S, Fikenzer S, Adam J, Redlich M, Möhlenkamp S, Hilberg T, Schuler GC, Adams V. Circulating microRNA-126 Increases after Different Forms of Endurance Exercise in Healthy Adults. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 2014;21:484–491.
    doi: 10.1177/2047487312467902pubmed: 23150891google scholar: lookup
  71. Sawada S, Kon M, Wada S, Ushida T, Suzuki K, Akimoto T. Profiling of Circulating microRNAs after a Bout of Acute Resistance Exercise in Humans. PLoS ONE 2013;8:e70823.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0070823pmc: PMC3726615pubmed: 23923026google scholar: lookup
  72. van der Kolk JH, Pacholewska A, Gerber V. The Role of microRNAs in Equine Medicine: A Review. Vet. Q. 2015;35:88–96.
    doi: 10.1080/01652176.2015.1021186pubmed: 25695624google scholar: lookup
  73. Barrey E, Bonnamy B, Barrey EJ, Mata X, Chaffaux S, Guerin G. Muscular microRNA Expressions in Healthy and Myopathic Horses Suffering from Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy or Recurrent Exertional Rhabdomyolysis. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 2010;38:303–310.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00267.xpubmed: 21059022google scholar: lookup
  74. Gim J-A, Ayarpadikannan S, Eo J, Kwon Y-J, Choi Y, Lee H-K, Park K-D, Yang YM, Cho B-W, Kim H-S. Transcriptional Expression Changes of Glucose Metabolism Genes after Exercise in Thoroughbred Horses. Gene 2014;547:152–158.
    doi: 10.1016/j.gene.2014.06.051pubmed: 24971503google scholar: lookup
  75. Mach N, Plancade S, Pacholewska A, Lecardonnel J, Rivière J, Moroldo M, Vaiman A, Morgenthaler C, Beinat M, Nevot A. Integrated mRNA and miRNA Expression Profiling in Blood Reveals Candidate Biomarkers Associated with Endurance Exercise in the Horse. Sci. Rep. 2016;6:22932.
    doi: 10.1038/srep22932pmc: PMC4785432pubmed: 26960911google scholar: lookup
  76. Kim H-A, Kim M-C, Kim N-Y, Ryu D-Y, Lee H-S, Kim Y. Integrated Analysis of microRNA and mRNA Expressions in Peripheral Blood Leukocytes of Warmblood Horses before and after Exercise. J. Vet. Sci. 2018;19:99–106.
    doi: 10.4142/jvs.2018.19.1.99pmc: PMC5799405pubmed: 28927254google scholar: lookup
  77. Cappelli K, Capomaccio S, Viglino A, Silvestrelli M, Beccati F, Moscati L, Chiaradia E. Circulating miRNAs as Putative Biomarkers of Exercise Adaptation in Endurance Horses. Front. Physiol. 2018;9:429.
    doi: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00429pmc: PMC5928201pubmed: 29740341google scholar: lookup
  78. Ma S, Ren W, Li Z, Li L, Wang R, Su Y, Huang Q, Dehaxi S, Wang J. Comparative Analysis of miRNA Expression in Yili Horses Pre- and Post-5000-m Race. Front. Genet. 2025;16:1676558.
    doi: 10.3389/fgene.2025.1676558pmc: PMC12520636pubmed: 41098164google scholar: lookup
  79. Akçay S, Gurkok-Tan T, Ekici S. Identification of Key Genes in Immune-Response Post-Endurance Run in Horses. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2025;149:105418.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2025.105418pubmed: 40174711google scholar: lookup
  80. Kirschner MB, Kao SC, Edelman JJ, Armstrong NJ, Vallely MP, van Zandwijk N, Reid G. Haemolysis during Sample Preparation Alters microRNA Content of Plasma. PLoS ONE 2011;6:e24145.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0024145pmc: PMC3164711pubmed: 21909417google scholar: lookup
  81. McDonald JS, Milosevic D, Reddi HV, Grebe SK, Algeciras-Schimnich A. Analysis of Circulating microRNA: Preanalytical and Analytical Challenges. Clin. Chem. 2011;57:833–840.
    doi: 10.1373/clinchem.2010.157198pubmed: 21487102google scholar: lookup
  82. Blondal T, Jensby Nielsen S, Baker A, Andreasen D, Mouritzen P, Wrang Teilum M, Dahlsveen IK. Assessing Sample and miRNA Profile Quality in Serum and Plasma or Other Biofluids. Methods 2013;59:S1–S6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2012.09.015pubmed: 23036329google scholar: lookup
  83. Kirschner MB, Edelman JJB, Kao SC-H, Vallely MP, van Zandwijk N, Reid G. The Impact of Hemolysis on Cell-Free microRNA Biomarkers. Front. Genet. 2013;4:94.
    doi: 10.3389/fgene.2013.00094pmc: PMC3663194pubmed: 23745127google scholar: lookup
  84. Masini AP, Tedeschi D, Badagli P, Sighieri C, Lubas C. Exercise-induced intravascular haemolysis in standardbred horses. Comp. Clin. Path. 2003;12:45–48.
    doi: 10.1007/s00580-002-0470-ygoogle scholar: lookup
  85. Cywinska A, Szarska E, Kowalska A, Ostaszewski P, Schollenberger A. Gender Differences in Exercise--Induced Intravascular Haemolysis during Race Training in Thoroughbred Horses. Res. Vet. Sci. 2011;90:133–137.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.05.004pubmed: 20553886google scholar: lookup
  86. Frost RJA, Olson EN. Control of Glucose Homeostasis and Insulin Sensitivity by the Let-7 Family of microRNAs. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011;108:21075–21080.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.1118922109pmc: PMC3248488pubmed: 22160727google scholar: lookup
  87. Ardite E, Perdiguero E, Vidal B, Gutarra S, Serrano AL, Muñoz-Cánoves P. PAI-1-Regulated miR-21 Defines a Novel Age-Associated Fibrogenic Pathway in Muscular Dystrophy. J. Cell Biol. 2012;196:163–175.
    doi: 10.1083/jcb.201105013pmc: PMC3255978pubmed: 22213800google scholar: lookup
  88. Guess MG, Barthel KKB, Harrison BC, Leinwand LA. miR-30 Family microRNAs Regulate Myogenic Differentiation and Provide Negative Feedback on the microRNA Pathway. PLoS ONE 2015;10:e0118229.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118229pmc: PMC4331529pubmed: 25689854google scholar: lookup
  89. Ma Z, Qi J, Meng S, Wen B, Zhang J. Swimming Exercise Training-Induced Left Ventricular Hypertrophy Involves microRNAs and Synergistic Regulation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 2013;113:2473–2486.
    doi: 10.1007/s00421-013-2685-9pubmed: 23812090google scholar: lookup
  90. Murphy BA, Wagner AL, McGlynn OF, Kharazyan F, Browne JA, Elliott JA. Exercise Influences Circadian Gene Expression in Equine Skeletal Muscle. Vet. J. 2014;201:39–45.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.03.028pubmed: 24888677google scholar: lookup
  91. Li Z, Liu L, Hou N, Song Y, An X, Zhang Y, Yang X, Wang J. miR-199-Sponge Transgenic Mice Develop Physiological Cardiac Hypertrophy. Cardiovasc. Res. 2016;110:258–267.
    doi: 10.1093/cvr/cvw052pubmed: 26976621google scholar: lookup
  92. Yang Y, Wang J-K. The Functional Analysis of MicroRNAs Involved in NF-κB Signaling. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 2016;20:1764–1774.
    pubmed: 27212168
  93. Rudnicki A, Shivatzki S, Beyer LA, Takada Y, Raphael Y, Avraham KB. microRNA-224 Regulates Pentraxin 3, a Component of the Humoral Arm of Innate Immunity, in Inner Ear Inflammation. Hum. Mol. Genet. 2014;23:3138–3146.
    doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddu023pmc: PMC4030769pubmed: 24470395google scholar: lookup
  94. Scisciani C, Vossio S, Guerrieri F, Schinzari V, De Iaco R, D’Onorio de Meo P, Cervello M, Montalto G, Pollicino T, Raimondo G. Transcriptional Regulation of miR-224 Upregulated in Human HCCs by NFκB Inflammatory Pathways. J. Hepatol. 2012;56:855–861.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2011.11.017pubmed: 22178270google scholar: lookup
  95. Tan G, Wu L, Tan J, Zhang B, Tai WC, Xiong S, Chen W, Yang J, Li H. MiR-1180 Promotes Apoptotic Resistance to Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma via Activation of NF-κB Signaling Pathway. Sci. Rep. 2016;6:22328.
    doi: 10.1038/srep22328pmc: PMC4772113pubmed: 26928365google scholar: lookup
  96. Wilsher S, Allen WR, Wood JL. Factors associated with failure of thoroughbred horses to train and race. Equine Vet. J. 2006;38:113–118.
    doi: 10.2746/042516406776563305pubmed: 16536379google scholar: lookup
  97. Al-Khalili L, Bouzakri K, Glund S, Lönnqvist F, Koistinen HA, Krook A. Signaling Specificity of Interleukin-6 Action on Glucose and Lipid Metabolism in Skeletal Muscle. Mol. Endocrinol. 2006;20:3364–3375.
    doi: 10.1210/me.2005-0490pubmed: 16945991google scholar: lookup
  98. Guo Y, Chen J, Qiu H. Novel Mechanisms of Exercise-Induced Cardioprotective Factors in Myocardial Infarction. Front. Physiol. 2020;11:199.
    doi: 10.3389/fphys.2020.00199pmc: PMC7076164pubmed: 32210839google scholar: lookup
  99. Milczek-Haduch D, Żmigrodzka M, Witkowska-Piłaszewicz O. Extracellular Vesicles in Sport Horses: Potential Biomarkers and Modulators of Exercise Adaptation and Therapeutics. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2025;26:4359.
    doi: 10.3390/ijms26094359pmc: PMC12073050pubmed: 40362597google scholar: lookup
  100. Lai Z, Liang J, Zhang J, Mao Y, Zheng X, Shen X, Lin W, Xu G. Exosomes as a Delivery Tool of Exercise-Induced Beneficial Factors for the Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front. Physiol. 2023;14:1190095.
    doi: 10.3389/fphys.2023.1190095pmc: PMC10570527pubmed: 37841310google scholar: lookup
  101. Hulliger MF, Pacholewska A, Vargas A, Lavoie J-P, Leeb T, Gerber V, Jagannathan V. An Integrative miRNA-mRNA Expression Analysis Reveals Striking Transcriptomic Similarities between Severe Equine Asthma and Specific Asthma Endotypes in Humans. Genes 2020;11:1143.
    doi: 10.3390/genes11101143pmc: PMC7600650pubmed: 32998415google scholar: lookup
  102. Hupin D, Edouard P, Gremeaux V, Garet M, Celle S, Pichot V, Maudoux D, Barthélémy JC, Roche F. Physical Activity to Reduce Mortality Risk. Eur. Heart J. 2017;38:1534–1537.
    doi: 10.1093/eurheartj/ehx236pubmed: 29048470google scholar: lookup
  103. Halama A, Oliveira JM, Filho SA, Qasim M, Achkar IW, Johnson S, Suhre K, Vinardell T. Metabolic Predictors of Equine Performance in Endurance Racing. Metabolites 2021;11:82.
    doi: 10.3390/metabo11020082pmc: PMC7912089pubmed: 33572513google scholar: lookup
  104. Vargas A, Mainguy-Seers S, Boivin R, Lavoie J-P. Low Levels of microRNA-21 in Neutrophil-Derived Exosomes May Contribute to Airway Smooth Muscle Hyperproliferation in Horses with Severe Asthma. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2024;85:ajvr.23.11.0267.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.23.11.0267pubmed: 38382196google scholar: lookup
  105. Hawkins SFC, Guest PC. Multiplex Analyses Using Real-Time Quantitative PCR. Methods Mol. Biol. 2017;1546:125–133.
    doi: 10.1007/978-1-4939-6730-8_8pubmed: 27896761google scholar: lookup
  106. Issouf M, Vargas A, Boivin R, Lavoie J-P. MicroRNA-221 Is Overexpressed in the Equine Asthmatic Airway Smooth Muscle and Modulates Smooth Muscle Cell Proliferation. Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 2019;317:L748–L757.
    doi: 10.1152/ajplung.00221.2018pubmed: 31389734google scholar: lookup
  107. Zhao C, Chen J-Y, Peng W-M, Yuan B, Bi Q, Xu Y-J. Exosomes from Adipose-derived Stem Cells Promote Chondrogenesis and Suppress Inflammation by Upregulating miR-145 and miR-221. Mol. Med. Rep. 2020;21:1881–1889.
    doi: 10.3892/mmr.2020.10982pmc: PMC7057766pubmed: 32319611google scholar: lookup
  108. Rani S, Ryan AE, Griffin MD, Ritter T. Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles: Toward Cell-Free Therapeutic Applications. Mol. Ther. 2015;23:812–823.
    doi: 10.1038/mt.2015.44pmc: PMC4427881pubmed: 25868399google scholar: lookup
  109. Record M, Carayon K, Poirot M, Silvente-Poirot S. Exosomes as New Vesicular Lipid Transporters Involved in Cell-Cell Communication and Various Pathophysiologies. Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 2014;1841:108–120.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2013.10.004pubmed: 24140720google scholar: lookup
  110. Klymiuk MC, Speer J, Marco ID, Elashry MI, Heimann M, Wenisch S, Arnhold S. Determination of the miRNA Profile of Extracellular Vesicles from Equine Mesenchymal Stem Cells after Different Treatments. Stem Cell Res. Ther. 2025;16:162.
    doi: 10.1186/s13287-025-04287-5pmc: PMC11972531pubmed: 40188160google scholar: lookup
  111. Cavallo C, Merli G, Zini N, D’Adamo S, Cattini L, Guescini M, Grigolo B, Di Martino A, Santi S, Borzì RM. Small Extracellular Vesicles from Inflamed Adipose Derived Stromal Cells Enhance the NF-κB-Dependent Inflammatory/Catabolic Environment of Osteoarthritis. Stem Cells Int. 2022;2022:9376338.
    doi: 10.1155/2022/9376338pmc: PMC9314187pubmed: 35898656google scholar: lookup
  112. Wu X, Wang Y, Xiao Y, Crawford R, Mao X, Prasadam I. Extracellular Vesicles: Potential Role in Osteoarthritis Regenerative Medicine. J. Orthop. Translat. 2020;21:73–80.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jot.2019.10.012pmc: PMC7029343pubmed: 32099807google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,970 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.