FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Pathogens / Detection of Chlamydia psittaci in the Genital Tract of Hors...
Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland)2024; 13(3); 236; doi: 10.3390/pathogens13030236

Detection of Chlamydia psittaci in the Genital Tract of Horses and in Environmental Samples: A Pilot Study in Sardinia.

Abstract: The members of the family are important pathogens that infect a wide range of vertebrate hosts, including humans. Among them, , historically considered as an avian agent, has recently been identified in livestock, primarily sheep and cattle, but also in horses, with the infection being linked to reproductive disorders, such as abortion, absorption of embryos, stillbirth, and the birth of weak foals. Much less is known about chlamydial infections in the Sardinian equine population. This study aimed to identify the chlamydial diversity in genital samples from asymptomatic Sardinian horses. However, some horses had a previous history of reproductive disorders, i.e., abortion and infertility. A total of 60 horses (39 mares and 21 stallions) were opportunistically recruited from 17 equine farms in central-northern Sardinia. Vaginal and uterine swabs from mares and urethral swabs and seminal fluid from stallions were sampled for the presence of chlamydial DNA. Samples from environments where the horses lived were also tested for the detection of spp. Eight vaginal swabs (8/39; 20%), two uterine swabs (2/27; 7%), two seminal fluid samples (2/20; 10%), and one urethral swab (1/21; 4.7%) were found to be positive for spp. by PCR analysis. In addition, results from environmental samples showed the presence of spp. in three environmental swabs (3/8; 37.5%) and five water samples (5/16; 31.2%). Sequencing results revealed that strains here identified were 99-100% similar to members belonging to the family, including , , and uncultured genotypes. species-specific PCR performed on samples was found to be positive after 16S rRNA amplification gave positive results for . These results reveal the first presence of in the genital tract of horses and in the environment in Sardinia and indicate that this pathogen could be the prevailing cause of infertility and abortion in the tested equines. However, these findings need further proof and highlight the importance of adopting a 'One Health' approach to control the presence of this zoonotic bacteria in domestic animals in order to understand its impact on people exposed to the infection risk.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2024-03-07 PubMed ID: 38535579PubMed Central: PMC10975369DOI: 10.3390/pathogens13030236Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This study investigated the presence of the bacterium Chlamydia psittaci in the genital tracts of horses and their environments in Sardinia, discovering it in both asymptomatic and reproductively impaired horses and in environmental samples, suggesting a possible link to equine reproductive disorders and highlighting zoonotic and environmental health concerns.

Background

  • Members of the Chlamydiaceae family are bacterial pathogens that infect many vertebrates, including humans.
  • Chlamydia psittaci was historically considered a pathogen primarily affecting birds (avian agent).
  • More recently, C. psittaci infections have been identified in various livestock such as sheep, cattle, and horses.
  • In horses, infections have been associated with reproductive issues including:
    • Abortion
    • Embryo absorption
    • Stillbirth
    • Birth of weak foals
  • Sardinian horses’ exposure to chlamydial infections had not been studied extensively before this research.

Research Aim

  • To identify the diversity of chlamydial bacteria, specifically focusing on C. psittaci, in the genital tracts of asymptomatic horses from Sardinia.
  • To evaluate if horses with a history of reproductive problems were positive for chlamydial infection.
  • To detect the presence of C. psittaci in the environments where these horses were kept (e.g., barn surfaces, water sources).

Study Design and Sample Collection

  • Sixty horses from 17 equine farms in central-northern Sardinia were studied, consisting of 39 mares and 21 stallions.
  • From mares, vaginal and uterine swabs were collected.
  • From stallions, urethral swabs and seminal fluid samples were collected.
  • Environmental samples included swabs from horse habitats and water samples.

Methods

  • PCR analysis was performed to detect chlamydial DNA in biological and environmental samples.
  • Species-specific PCR targeting 16S rRNA gene sequences was used to confirm presence of C. psittaci.
  • Sequencing of positive samples was conducted to compare strain similarity with known Chlamydiaceae family members and genotypes.

Key Findings

  • Detection rates of C. psittaci DNA in horse samples were:
    • 20% of vaginal swabs (8/39)
    • 7% of uterine swabs (2/27)
    • 10% of seminal fluid samples (2/20)
    • 4.7% of urethral swabs (1/21)
  • Environmental detection included:
    • 37.5% positivity in environmental surface swabs (3/8)
    • 31.2% positivity in water samples (5/16)
  • Sequencing showed 99-100% similarity to Chlamydiaceae species, including known C. psittaci strains and uncultured genotypes.
  • This study is the first to report C. psittaci in the genital tract of horses and in their environment in Sardinia.

Implications

  • The presence of C. psittaci may be a significant cause of infertility, abortion, and other reproductive disorders observed in Sardinian horses.
  • There is a potential zoonotic risk since C. psittaci can infect humans, highlighting a public health concern.
  • Environmental contamination with C. psittaci suggests a possible transmission route between horses and their environment.
  • The findings emphasize the importance of a “One Health” approach, which integrates animal, human, and environmental health management for controlling chlamydial infections.
  • Further studies are needed to confirm these preliminary results and to assess the broader impact on equine reproductive health and human exposure risk.

Conclusions

  • This pilot study provides evidence for the presence and potential role of C. psittaci in equine reproductive health issues in Sardinia.
  • Environmental reservoirs may contribute to the persistence and spread of this pathogen among horses.
  • Control measures should consider both animal management and environmental sanitation to reduce infection risks.

Cite This Article

APA
Muroni G, Serra E, Biggio GP, Sanna D, Cherchi R, Taras A, Appino S, Foxi C, Masala G, Loi F, Chisu V. (2024). Detection of Chlamydia psittaci in the Genital Tract of Horses and in Environmental Samples: A Pilot Study in Sardinia. Pathogens, 13(3), 236. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens13030236

Publication

Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland)
ISSN: 2076-0817
NlmUniqueID: 101596317
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 13
Issue: 3
PII: 236

Researcher Affiliations

Muroni, Gaia
  • Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
Serra, Elisa
  • Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
Biggio, Giovanni Paolo
  • AGRIS, Servizio Ricerca Qualità e Valorizzazione delle Produzioni Equine, 07014 Ozieri, Italy.
Sanna, Daniela
  • AGRIS, Servizio Ricerca Qualità e Valorizzazione delle Produzioni Equine, 07014 Ozieri, Italy.
Cherchi, Raffaele
  • AGRIS, Servizio Ricerca Qualità e Valorizzazione delle Produzioni Equine, 07014 Ozieri, Italy.
Taras, Andrea
  • AGRIS, Servizio Ricerca Qualità e Valorizzazione delle Produzioni Equine, 07014 Ozieri, Italy.
Appino, Simonetta
  • Dipartimento di Medicina Veterinaria, Università di Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
Foxi, Cipriano
  • Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
Masala, Giovanna
  • Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
Loi, Federica
  • Osservatorio Epidemiologico Veterinario Regionale della Sardegna, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, 07100 Sassari, Italy.
Chisu, Valentina
  • Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sardegna, 07100 Sassari, Italy.

MeSH Terms

  • Horses / microbiology
  • Animals
  • Chlamydophila psittaci / isolation & purification
  • Chlamydophila psittaci / genetics
  • Italy / epidemiology
  • Horse Diseases / microbiology
  • Horse Diseases / diagnosis
  • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
  • Female
  • Pilot Projects
  • Psittacosis / microbiology
  • Psittacosis / veterinary
  • Psittacosis / diagnosis
  • Psittacosis / epidemiology
  • Male
  • Genitalia / microbiology
  • Chlamydia Infections / veterinary
  • Chlamydia Infections / microbiology
  • Chlamydia Infections / diagnosis
  • Chlamydia Infections / epidemiology

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

This article includes 51 references
  1. Stokes HS, Berg ML, Bennett ATD. A Review of Chlamydial Infections in Wild Birds.. Pathogens 2021;10:948.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10080948pmc: PMC8398480pubmed: 34451412google scholar: lookup
  2. Borel N, Polkinghorne A, Pospischil A. A Review on Chlamydial Diseases in Animals: Still a Challenge for Pathologists?. Veter Pathol 2018;55:374–390.
    doi: 10.1177/0300985817751218pubmed: 29310550google scholar: lookup
  3. Eisenberg T, Fawzy A, Kaim U, Nesseler A, Riße K, Völker I, Hechinger S, Schauerte N, Geiger C, Knauf-Witzens T. Chronic wasting associated with Chlamydia pneumoniae in three ex situ breeding facilities for tropical frogs.. Antonie Leeuwenhoek 2020;113:2139–2154.
    doi: 10.1007/s10482-020-01483-6pmc: PMC7716926pubmed: 33150542google scholar: lookup
  4. Vorimore F, Hölzer M, Liebler-Tenorio E, Barf L-M, Delannoy S, Vittecoq M, Wedlarski R, Lécu A, Scharf S, Blanchard Y. Evidence for the existence of a new genus Chlamydiifrater gen. nov. inside the family Chlamydiaceae with two new species isolated from flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus): Chlamydiifrater phoenicopteri sp. nov. and Chlamydiifrater volucris sp. nov.. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 2021;44:126200.
    doi: 10.1016/j.syapm.2021.126200pubmed: 34298369google scholar: lookup
  5. Sachse K, Bavoil PM, Kaltenboeck B, Stephens RS, Kuo C-C, Rosselló-Móra R, Horn M. Emendation of the family Chlamydiaceae: Proposal of a single genus, Chlamydia, to include all currently recognized species.. Syst. Appl. Microbiol. 2015;38:99–103.
    doi: 10.1016/j.syapm.2014.12.004pubmed: 25618261google scholar: lookup
  6. Ravichandran K, Anbazhagan S, Karthik K, Angappan M, Dhayananth B. A Comprehensive review on avian chlamydiosis: A neglected zoonotic disease.. Trop. Anim. Health Prod. 2021;53:414.
    doi: 10.1007/s11250-021-02859-0pmc: PMC8313243pubmed: 34312716google scholar: lookup
  7. Weygaerde YV, Versteele C, Thijs E, De Spiegeleer A, Boelens J, Vanrompay D, Van Braeckel E, Vermaelen K. An unusual presentation of a case of human psittacosis.. Respir. Med. Case Rep. 2018;23:138–142.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rmcr.2018.01.010pmc: PMC5926501pubmed: 29719801google scholar: lookup
  8. Collina F, De Chiara A, De Renzo A, De Rosa G, Botti G, Franco R. Chlamydia psittaci in ocular adnexa MALT lymphoma: A possible role in lymphomagenesis and a different geographical distribution.. Infect. Agents Cancer 2012;7:8.
    doi: 10.1186/1750-9378-7-8pmc: PMC3355003pubmed: 22472082google scholar: lookup
  9. Dembek ZF, Mothershead JL, Owens AN, Chekol T, Wu A. Psittacosis: An Underappreciated and Often Undiagnosed Disease.. Pathogens 2023;12:1165.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens12091165pmc: PMC10536718pubmed: 37764973google scholar: lookup
  10. Shi Y, Chen J, Shi X, Hu J, Li H, Li X, Wang Y, Wu B. A case of chlamydia psittaci caused severe pneumonia and meningitis diagnosed by metagenome next-generation sequencing and clinical analysis: A case report and literature review.. BMC Infect. Dis. 2021;21:621.
    doi: 10.1186/s12879-021-06205-5pmc: PMC8243071pubmed: 34193063google scholar: lookup
  11. Balsamo G, Maxted AM, Midla JW, Murphy JM, Wohrle R, Edling TM, Fish PH, Flammer K, Hyde D, Kutty PK. Compendium of Measures to Control. Chlamydia psittaci. Infection Among Humans (Psittacosis) and Pet Birds (Avian Chlamydiosis), 2017.. J. Avian Med. Surg. 2017;31:262–282.
    doi: 10.1647/217-265pubmed: 28891690google scholar: lookup
  12. Zhang Z, Zhou H, Cao H, Ji J, Zhang R, Li W, Guo H, Chen L, Ma C, Cui M. Human-to-human transmission of Chlamydia psittaci in China, 2020: An epidemiological and aetiological investigation.. Lancet Microbe 2022;3:e512–e520.
    doi: 10.1016/S2666-5247(22)00064-7pubmed: 35617977google scholar: lookup
  13. Jenkins C, Jelocnik M, Melinda L, O’Rourke B, Chicken C, Carrick J, Polkinghorne A. An epizootic of Chlamydia psittaci equine reproductive loss associated with suspected spillover from native Australian parrots.. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2018;7:88.
    doi: 10.1038/s41426-018-0089-ypmc: PMC5953950pubmed: 29765033google scholar: lookup
  14. Jelocnik M, Branley J, Heller J, Alderson S, Galea F, Polkinghorne A. Multilocus sequence typing identifies an avian-like Chlamydia psittaci strain involved in equine placentitis and associated with subsequent human psittacosis.. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2017;6:e7.
    doi: 10.1038/emi.2016.135pmc: PMC5322323pubmed: 28196971google scholar: lookup
  15. Anstey S, Lizárraga D, Nyari S, Chalmers G, Carrick J, Chicken C, Jenkins C, Perkins N, Timms P, Jelocnik M. Epidemiology of Chlamydia psittaci infections in pregnant Thoroughbred mares and foals.. Veter J. 2021;273:105683.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2021.105683pubmed: 34148605google scholar: lookup
  16. El-Hage C, Gilkerson J. Chlamydia psittaci: An emerging cause of equine abortion and fatal neonatal illness in south-eastern Australia.. VetRec 2023;193:11.
    doi: 10.1002/vetr.3739pubmed: 38038292google scholar: lookup
  17. Akter R, Sansom FM, El-Hage CM, Gilkerson JR, Legione AR, Devlin JM. A 25-year retrospective study of Chlamydia psittaci in association with equine reproductive loss in Australia.. J. Med. Microbiol. 2021;70:001284.
    doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.001284pmc: PMC8131020pubmed: 33258756google scholar: lookup
  18. Cheong HC, Lee CYQ, Cheok YY, Tan GMY, Looi CY, Wong WF. Chlamydiaceae: Diseases in Primary Hosts and Zoonosis.. Microorganisms 2019;7:146.
    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms7050146pmc: PMC6560403pubmed: 31137741google scholar: lookup
  19. Polkinghorne A, Greub G. A new equine and zoonotic threat emerges from an old avian pathogen, Chlamydia psittaci.. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2017;23:693–694.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2017.05.025pubmed: 28583739google scholar: lookup
  20. Szeredi L, Hotzel H, Sachse K. High prevalence of chlamydial (Chlamydophila psittaci) infection in fetal membranes of aborted equine fetuses.. Veter Res. Commun. 2005;29:37–49.
    doi: 10.1007/s11259-005-0835-1pubmed: 15943064google scholar: lookup
  21. Costa LR. Manual of Clinical Procedures in the Horse.. 2017; pp. 27–58.
    doi: 10.1002/9781118939956.ch3google scholar: lookup
  22. Barrelet A, Ricketts S. Haematology and blood biochemistry in the horse: A guide to interpretation.. In Practice 2002;24:318–327.
    doi: 10.1136/inpract.24.6.318google scholar: lookup
  23. Dascanio J, McCue P. Equine Reproductive Procedures.. 2021; p. 22.
  24. Love CC. Semen Collection Techniques.. Veter Clin. North Am. Equine Pr. 1992;8:111–128.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30470-4pubmed: 1576545google scholar: lookup
  25. Estrada-Peña A, Mihalca A, Petney T. Ticks of Europe and North Africa.. 2017.
    doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-63760-0google scholar: lookup
  26. Chisu V, Porcu R, Tanda A, Masala G. First isolation and characterization of Chlamydophila abortus from abortion tissues of sheep in Sardinia, Italy.. Vet. Ital. 2013;49:331–334.
    doi: 10.12834/VetIt.1303.10pubmed: 24362772google scholar: lookup
  27. Chisu V, Foxi C, Tanda A, Masala G. Molecular evidence of Chlamydiales in ticks from wild and domestic hosts in Sardinia, Italy.. Parasitol. Res. 2018;117:981–987.
    doi: 10.1007/s00436-018-5772-3pubmed: 29417274google scholar: lookup
  28. Doosti A, Arshi A. Determination of the Prevalence of Chlamydia psittaci by PCR in Iranian Pigeons.. Int. J. Biol. 2011;3:79–82.
    doi: 10.5539/ijb.v3n4p79google scholar: lookup
  29. Larkin MA, Blackshields G, Brown NP, Chenna R, McGettigan PA, McWilliam H, Valentin F, Wallace IM, Wilm A, Lopez R. Clustal W and Clustal X version 2.0.. Bioinformatics 2007;23:2947–2948.
    doi: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btm404pubmed: 17846036google scholar: lookup
  30. Fleiss JL, Cohen J, Everitt BS. Large sample standard errors of kappa and weighted kappa.. Psychol Bull 1969;72:323–327.
    doi: 10.1037/h0028106google scholar: lookup
  31. Landis JR, Koch GG. The measurement of observer agreement for categoricaldata. Biometrics 1977;33:159–174.
    doi: 10.2307/2529310pubmed: 843571google scholar: lookup
  32. Brown LD, Cat TT, DasGupta A. Interval Estimation for a proportion. Statistical Science 2001;16:101–133.
    doi: 10.1214/ss/1009213286google scholar: lookup
  33. Reiczigel F, Ózsvári. Exact confidence limits for prevalence of a disease with an imperfect diagnostic test. Epidemiol. Infect. 2010;138:1674–1678.
    doi: 10.1017/S0950268810000385pubmed: 20196903google scholar: lookup
  34. Albini S, Marti H, Imkamp F, Borel N. Update on the zoonotic potential of Chlamydia. Schweiz Arch. Tierheilkd. 2023;165:165–178.
    doi: 10.17236/sat00387pubmed: 36852870google scholar: lookup
  35. El-Hage C, Legione A, Devlin J, Hughes K, Jenkins C, Gilkerson J. Equine Psittacosis and the Emergence of Chlamydia psittaci as an Equine Abortigenic Pathogen in Southeastern Australia: A Retrospective Data Analysis. Animals 2023;13:2443.
    doi: 10.3390/ani13152443pmc: PMC10416985pubmed: 37570252google scholar: lookup
  36. Sachse K, Hölzer M, Vorimore F, Barf L-M, Sachse C, Laroucau K, Marz M, Lamkiewicz K. Genomic analysis of 61 Chlamydia psittaci strains reveals extensive divergence associated with host preference. BMC Genom. 2023;24:288.
    doi: 10.1186/s12864-023-09370-wpmc: PMC10226258pubmed: 37248517google scholar: lookup
  37. Begg AP, Carrick J, Chicken C, Blishen A, Todhunter K, Eamens K, Jenkins C. Fetoplacental pathology of equine abortion, premature birth, and neonatal loss due to Chlamydia psittaci. Veter Pathol. 2022;59:983–996.
    doi: 10.1177/03009858221120008pubmed: 36062911google scholar: lookup
  38. Schachter J, Chernesky MA, Willis DE, Fine PM, Martin DH, Fuller D, Jordan JA, Janda W, Hook EW. Vaginal Swabs Are the Specimens of Choice When Screening for Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae: Results from a Multicenter Evaluation of the APTIMA Assays for Both Infections. Sex. Transm. Dis. 2005;32:725–728.
    doi: 10.1097/01.olq.0000190092.59482.96pubmed: 16314767google scholar: lookup
  39. Aaron KJ, Griner S, Footman A, Boutwell A, Van Der Pol B. Vaginal Swab vs Urine for Detection of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Trichomonas vaginalis: A Meta-Analysis. Ann. Fam. Med. 2023;21:172–179.
    doi: 10.1370/afm.2942pmc: PMC10042575pubmed: 36973065google scholar: lookup
  40. Papp JR, E Shewen P, E Thorn C, Andersen AA. Immunocytologic detection of Chlamydia psittaci from cervical and vaginal samples of chronically infected ewes. Can. J. Vet. Res. Rev. Can. Rech. Vét. 1998;62:72–74.
    pmc: PMC1189446pubmed: 9442944
  41. Cunningham KA, Beagley KW. Male Genital Tract Chlamydial Infection: Implications for Pathology and Infertility1. Biol. Reprod. 2008;79:180–189.
    doi: 10.1095/biolreprod.108.067835pubmed: 18480466google scholar: lookup
  42. Lin W, Chen T, Liao L, Wang Z, Xiao J, Lu J, Xie Q. A parrot-type Chlamydia psittaci strain is association with egg production drop in laying ducks. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2019;66:2002–2010.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13248pubmed: 31127977google scholar: lookup
  43. Yao W, Chen X, Wu Z, Wang L, Shi G, Yang Z, Zhang Y, Wu B. A cluster of Psittacosis cases in Lishui, Zhejiang Province, China, in 2021. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2022;12:1044984.
    doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1044984pmc: PMC9798449pubmed: 36590592google scholar: lookup
  44. Taylor KA, Durrheim D, Heller J, O’Rourke B, Hope K, Merritt T, Freeman P, Chicken C, Carrick J, Branley J. Equine chlamydiosis—An emerging infectious disease requiring a one health surveillance approach. Zoonoses Public Health 2018;65:218–221.
    doi: 10.1111/zph.12391pubmed: 28984040google scholar: lookup
  45. Stokes HS, Martens JM, Walder K, Segal Y, Berg ML, Bennett ATD. Species, sex and geographic variation in chlamydial prevalence in abundant wild Australian parrots. Sci. Rep. 2020;10:1–13.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-77500-5pmc: PMC7686501pubmed: 33235241google scholar: lookup
  46. Anstey SI, Kasimov V, Jenkins C, Legione A, Devlin J, Amery-Gale J, Gilkerson J, Hair S, Perkins N, Peel AJ. Chlamydia Psittaci ST24: Clonal Strains of One Health Importance Dominate in Australian Horse, Bird and Human Infections.. Pathogens 2021;10:1015.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10081015pmc: PMC8401489pubmed: 34451478google scholar: lookup
  47. Kasimov V, White RT, Foxwell J, Jenkins C, Gedye K, Pannekoek Y, Jelocnik M. Whole-genome sequencing of Chlamydia psittaci from Australasian avian hosts: A genomics approach to a pathogen that still ruffles feathers.. Microb. Genom. 2023;9:001072.
    doi: 10.1099/mgen.0.001072pmc: PMC10438822pubmed: 37486739google scholar: lookup
  48. Hulin V, Bernard P, Vorimore F, Aaziz R, Cléva D, Robineau J, Durand B, Angelis L, Siarkou VI, Laroucau K. Assessment of Chlamydia psittaci Shedding and Environmental Contamination as Potential Sources of Worker Exposure throughout the Mule Duck Breeding Process.. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2015;82:1504–1518.
    doi: 10.1128/AEM.03179-15pmc: PMC4771335pubmed: 26712548google scholar: lookup
  49. Kahane S, Greenberg D, Newman N, Dvoskin B, Friedman MG. Domestic water supplies as a possible source of infection with Simkania.. J. Infect. 2007;54:75–81.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2006.01.011pubmed: 16542731google scholar: lookup
  50. Wheelhouse N, Sait M, Gidlow J, Deuchande R, Borel N, Baily J, Caldow G, Longbottom D. Molecular detection of Chlamydia-like organisms in cattle drinking water.. Veter Microbiol. 2011;152:196–199.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.03.040pubmed: 21549530google scholar: lookup
  51. Muroni G, Pinna L, Serra E, Chisu V, Mandas D, Coccollone A, Liciardi M, Masala G. A Chlamydia psittaci Outbreak in Psittacine Birds in Sardinia, Italy.. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022;19:14204.
    doi: 10.3390/ijerph192114204pmc: PMC9658638pubmed: 36361084google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 1 times.
  1. Gao W, Liu M, Nurdaly K, Caidan D, Sun Y, Duan J, Zhao J, Gong X, Zhou J, Zhang Y, Chen Q. Unveiling Equine Abortion Pathogens: A One Health Perspective on Prevalence and Resistance in Northwest China. Pathogens 2025 Dec 11;14(12).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens14121275pubmed: 41471229google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,093 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.