FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Animal Model Exp Med / Equine models in translational medicine: A comparative appro...
Animal models and experimental medicine2026; doi: 10.1002/ame2.70180

Equine models in translational medicine: A comparative approach to human health.

Abstract: The horse is a distinctive translational model for bridging mechanistic discovery and clinically relevant investigation because of its physiological complexity, long lifespan, athletic phenotype, and broad spectrum of naturally occurring conditions that parallel aspects of human health and disease. Its utility extends from musculoskeletal and joint research to immunology, metabolic disorders, and exercise physiology, particularly where naturally developed disease, clinically applicable imaging, and longitudinal sampling are required. Additionally, it offers opportunities to examine both chronic and acute pathological processes in a setting that closely approximates clinical reality. Advances in molecular profiling, imaging technologies, and biomarker discovery have expanded the scope of equine-based studies, enabled refined mechanistic insights, and facilitated translational strategies. The integration of equine research into comparative medicine frameworks holds promise for accelerating therapeutic innovation within comparative and One-Health, improving health outcomes across species.
© 2026 The Author(s). Animal Models and Experimental Medicine published by John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd on behalf of The Chinese Association for Laboratory Animal Sciences.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2026-03-16 PubMed ID: 41840825DOI: 10.1002/ame2.70180Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This research article discusses the use of horses as a valuable model in translational medicine to better understand human health and disease.
  • It highlights the advantages of using horses due to their physiological similarities and naturally occurring conditions that parallel human diseases.

Introduction to Equine Models in Translational Medicine

  • Horses provide a distinctive model to bridge the gap between basic research and clinical applications.
  • Their physiological complexity and long lifespan make them suitable for studying chronic and acute diseases over time.
  • Horses exhibit an athletic phenotype and naturally develop many diseases similar to those in humans, making them relevant for comparative studies.

Applications of Equine Models

  • Musculoskeletal and Joint Research:
    • Equine models help study orthopedic conditions and joint diseases relevant to human health.
    • They provide insights into degeneration, repair mechanisms, and therapeutic interventions.
  • Immunology:
    • Horses serve as models to investigate immune responses and related disorders.
    • Naturally occurring immune conditions in horses can mimic human immune diseases.
  • Metabolic Disorders:
    • Equine models are used to study conditions such as insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome that parallel human metabolic disorders.
  • Exercise Physiology:
    • Due to their athletic capacity, horses provide a natural platform to study exercise-related physiological responses and adaptations.
    • This includes evaluations after natural disease progression and recovery phases.

Advantages of Equine Models in Clinical and Mechanistic Research

  • Natural Disease Development:
    • Diseases occurring naturally in horses offer real-world parallels rather than artificially induced conditions, increasing clinical relevance.
  • Imaging and Longitudinal Sampling:
    • Clinically applicable imaging tools can be used in horses, similar to those used in human medicine.
    • Longitudinal studies are possible due to the horse’s longer lifespan, allowing monitoring of disease progression and treatment over time.
  • Chronic and Acute Pathologies:
    • The horse model allows examination of both short-term injuries and long-term diseases under clinical-like conditions.

Technological Advances Enhancing Equine Research

  • Molecular Profiling:
    • Advances in genomics and proteomics enable detailed molecular studies of diseases in horses.
    • This helps uncover mechanisms linking equine and human conditions.
  • Imaging Technologies:
    • Progress in imaging methods such as MRI and ultrasound improves diagnostic capabilities in horses.
    • This allows non-invasive monitoring of pathological changes over time.
  • Biomarker Discovery:
    • Identification of biomarkers in horses assists in early diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy evaluation relevant to human medicine.

Implications for Translational Medicine and One Health

  • The use of horses as a comparative model supports translational strategies aimed at therapeutic innovation.
  • Integration into comparative medicine frameworks emphasizes the interconnectedness of human and animal health (One Health concept).
  • This integrated approach holds promise for accelerating the development of treatments benefiting both species.

Cite This Article

APA
Boozarjomehri Amnieh S, Ropka-Molik K. (2026). Equine models in translational medicine: A comparative approach to human health. Animal Model Exp Med. https://doi.org/10.1002/ame2.70180

Publication

Animal models and experimental medicine
ISSN: 2576-2095
NlmUniqueID: 101726292
Country: United States
Language: English

Researcher Affiliations

Boozarjomehri Amnieh, Shayan
  • Animal Model Integrated Network (AMIN), Universal Scientific Education & Research Network (USERN), Tehran, Iran.
Ropka-Molik, Katarzyna
  • Department of Animal Molecular Biology, National Research Institute of Animal Production, Balice, Poland.

Grant Funding

  • 04-18-20-21 / National Research Institute of Animal Production

References

This article includes 141 references
  1. Denayer T, Stöhr T, Van Roy M. Animal models in translational medicine: validation and prediction.. Eur J Mol Clin Med 2014;2(1):5‐11.
  2. Steger‐Hartmann T, Raschke M. Translating in vitro to in vivo and animal to human.. Curr Opin Toxicol 2020;23‐24:6‐10.
  3. Blanset D, Hutt J, Morgan S. Current use of animal models of disease for nonclinical safety testing.. Curr Opin Toxicol 2020;23‐24:11‐16.
  4. Kaplan BLF, Hoberman AM, Slikker W Jr. Protecting human and animal health: the road from animal models to new approach methods.. Pharmacol Rev 2024;76(2):251‐266.
  5. Farooqi IS, Xu Y. Translational potential of mouse models of human metabolic disease.. Cell 2024;187(16):4129‐4143.
  6. Durward‐Akhurst SA, Marlowe JL, Schaefer RJ. Predicted genetic burden and frequency of phenotype‐associated variants in the horse.. Sci Rep 2024;14(1):8396.
  7. Danek M, Danek J, Araszkiewicz A. Large animals as potential models of human mental and behavioral disorders.. Psychiatr Pol 2017;51(6):1009‐1027.
  8. Fureix C, Jego P, Henry S, Lansade L, Hausberger M. Towards an ethological animal model of depression? A study on horses.. PLoS One 2012;7(6):e39280.
  9. Carnevale E. The mare model for follicular maturation and reproductive aging in the woman.. Theriogenology 2008;69(1):23‐30.
  10. Aleman M, McCue M, Bellone RR. Allele frequencies and genotypes for the ryanodine receptor 1 variant causing malignant hyperthermia and fatal rhabdomyolysis with hyperthermia in horses.. J Vet Intern Med 2025;39(3):e70081.
  11. Winters R, Masood S. Waardenburg syndrome.. StatPearls [Internet] StatPearls Publishing; 2025.
  12. Reiter S, Wallner B, Brem G. Distribution of the warmblood fragile foal syndrome type 1 mutation (PLOD1 c.2032G>A) in different horse breeds from Europe and the United States.. Genes 2020;11(12):1518.
  13. Rohrbach M, Giunta C. PLOD1‐related kyphoscoliotic Ehlers‐Danlos syndrome.. GeneReviews® [Internet] University of Washington, Seattle; 1993–2025. 2000.
  14. Patterson‐Kane JC, Rich T. Achilles tendon injuries in elite athletes: lessons in pathophysiology from their equine counterparts.. ILAR J 2014;55(1):86‐99.
  15. McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE. The horse as a model of naturally occurring osteoarthritis.. Bone Joint Res 2012;1(11):297‐309.
  16. Hunter DJ, Bierma‐Zeinstra S. Osteoarthritis.. Lancet 2019;393:1745‐1759.
  17. McIlwraith CW, Kawcak CE, Frisbie DD. Biomarkers for equine joint injury and osteoarthritis.. J Orthop Res 2018;36(3):823‐831.
  18. McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, Fuller CJ, Hurtig M, Cruz A. The OARSI histopathology initiative—recommendations for histological assessments of osteoarthritis in the horse.. Osteoarthr Cartil 2010;18(Suppl 3):S93‐S105.
  19. Mahmoudian A, Lohmander LS, Mobasheri A, Englund M, Luyten FP. Early‐stage symptomatic osteoarthritis of the knee—time for action.. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2021;17(10):621‐632.
  20. Couëtil LL, Cardwell JM, Gerber V, Lavoie JP, Léguillette R, Richard EA. Inflammatory airway disease of horses—revised consensus statement.. J Vet Intern Med 2016;30(2):503‐515.
  21. Bullone M, Lavoie JP. The equine asthma model of airway remodeling: from a veterinary to a human perspective.. Cell Tissue Res 2020;380(2):223‐236.
  22. Hesselkilde EZ, Carstensen H, Haugaard MM. Effect of flecainide on atrial fibrillatory rate in a large animal model with induced atrial fibrillation.. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2017;17(1):289.
  23. Hesselkilde EZ, Carstensen H, Flethøj M. Longitudinal study of electrical, functional and structural remodelling in an equine model of atrial fibrillation.. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2019;19(1):228.
  24. Van Loon G, Duytschaever M, Tavernier R, Fonteyne W, Jordaens L, Deprez P. An equine model of chronic atrial fibrillation: methodology.. Vet J 2002;164(2):142‐150.
  25. Harman RM, Theoret CL, de Van Walle GR. The horse as a model for the study of cutaneous wound healing.. Adv Wound Care 2019;10(7):381‐399.
  26. Theoret CL, Olutoye OO, Parnell LK, Hicks J. Equine exuberant granulation tissue and human keloids: a comparative histopathologic study.. Vet Surg 2013;42(7):783‐789.
  27. Smith RK, Garvican ER, Fortier LA. The current ‘state of play’ of regenerative medicine in horses: what the horse can tell the human.. Regen Med 2014;9(5):673‐685.
  28. Galipeau J, Sensebé L. Mesenchymal stromal cells: clinical challenges and therapeutic opportunities.. Cytotherapy 2018;20(5):565‐569.
  29. Zhang G, Zhou X, Hu S, Jin Y, Qiu Z. Large animal models for the study of tendinopathy.. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022;10:1031638.
  30. Marr N, Zamboulis DE, Werling D. The tendon interfascicular basement membrane provides a vascular niche for CD146+ cell subpopulations.. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023;10:1094124.
  31. Moulin D, Sellam J, Berenbaum F, Guicheux J, Boutet M‐A. The role of the immune system in osteoarthritis: mechanisms, challenges and future directions.. Nat Rev Rheumatol 2025;21(4):221‐236.
  32. Ningtyas MC, Ansharullah BA, Sutanto H, Prajitno JH. Beyond weight: exploring the nexus between obesity and osteoarthritis.. Med Fam SEMERGEN 2025;51(6):102526.
  33. Trumble T, Groschen D, Ha N, Boyce M, Merritt K, Brown M. New urine biomarker assay compares to synovial fluid changes after acute joint injury in an equine model of osteoarthritis.. Osteoarthr Cartil 2012;20(suppl 1):S91.
  34. Boyce M, Trumble T, Carlson C, Groschen D, Merritt K, Brown M. Non‐terminal model of acute joint injury causes early osteoarthritis.. Osteoarthr Cartil 2013;21(5):746‐755.
  35. Xia Y, Zheng S, Bidthanapally A. Depth‐dependent profiles of glycosaminoglycans in articular cartilage by microMRI and histochemistry.. J Magn Reson Imaging 2008;28(1):151‐157.
  36. Fugazzola M, Nissinen MT, Jäntti J. Composition, architecture and biomechanical properties of articular cartilage in differently loaded areas of the equine stifle.. Equine Vet J 2024;56(3):573‐585.
  37. Malda J, Benders KEM, Klein TJ. Comparative study of depth‐dependent characteristics of equine and human osteochondral tissue from the medial and lateral femoral condyles.. Osteoarthr Cartil 2012;20(10):1147‐1151.
  38. Goodrich L, Choi V, Carbone BD, McIlwraith C, Samulski R. Ex vivo serotype‐specific transduction of equine joint tissue by self‐complementary adeno‐associated viral vectors.. Hum Gene Ther 2009;20(12):1697‐1702.
  39. Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Werpy NM. Evaluation of polysulfated glycosaminoglycan or sodium hyaluronan administered intra‐articularly for treatment of horses with experimentally induced osteoarthritis.. Am J Vet Res 2009;70(2):203‐209.
  40. Frisbie DD, Kisiday JD, Kawcak CE, Werpy NM, McIlwraith CW. Evaluation of adipose‐derived stromal vascular fraction or bone marrow‐derived mesenchymal stem cells for treatment of osteoarthritis.. J Orthop Res 2009;27(12):1675‐1680.
  41. Nelson B, Kawcak C, Barrett M, McIlwraith C, Grinstaff M, Goodrich L. Recent advances in articular cartilage evaluation using computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging.. Equine Vet J 2018;50(5):564‐579.
  42. Jasiński T, Turek B, Kaczorowski M. Equine models of temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis: a review of feasibility, biomarkers, and molecular signaling.. Biomedicine 2024;12(3):542.
  43. Chiaradia E, Miller I. In slow pace towards the proteome of equine body fluids.. J Proteome 2020;225:103880.
  44. Fukuda K, Mita H, Tamura N. Characteristic inflammatory biomarkers in an equine model of persistent synovitis induced by the intra‐articular administration of monoiodoacetic acid.. J Equine Vet Sci 2023;127:104564.
  45. Kearney CM, Korthagen NM, Plomp SGM. A translational model for repeated episodes of joint inflammation: welfare, clinical and synovial fluid biomarker assessment.. Animals 2023;13(20):3190.
  46. Manfredi JM, Jacob S, Norton E. A one‐health lens offers new perspectives on the importance of endocrine disorders in the equine athlete.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2023;261(2):153‐164.
  47. Roszkowski S. Therapeutic potential of mesenchymal stem cell‐derived exosomes for regenerative medicine applications.. Clin Exp Med 2024;24(1):46.
  48. Lakey J. Advances in mesenchymal stem cell therapy for equine osteoarthritis.. Am J Biomed Sci Res 2024;22:368‐373.
  49. Ropka‐Molik K, Opiela J, Piórkowska K. Changes of gene expression profile during differentiation of equine bone marrow‐derived MSCs towards adipocytes and chondrocytes.. Ann Anim Sci 2025;26(1):293‐306.
  50. Hillmann A, Ahrberg AB, Brehm W. Comparative characterization of human and equine mesenchymal stromal cells: a basis for translational studies in the equine model.. Cell Transplant 2016;25(1):109‐124.
  51. Bellas E, Rollins A, Moreau JE. Equine model for soft‐tissue regeneration.. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2015;103(6):1217‐1227.
  52. Sparks HD, Sigaeva T, Tarraf S. Biomechanics of wound healing in an equine limb model: effect of location and treatment with a peptide‐modified collagen–chitosan hydrogel.. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2021;7(1):265‐278.
  53. Chanda M, Petchdee S. Cardiac morphology changes in horses as a response to various types of sports.. J Appl Anim Res 2022;50(1):453‐459.
  54. Barbier J, Ville N, Kervio G, Walther G, Carré F. Sports‐specific features of athlete's heart and their relation to echocardiographic parameters.. Herz Kardiovaskuläre Erkrankungen 2006;31(6):531‐543.
  55. Nath LC, Saljic A, Buhl R. Histological evaluation of cardiac remodelling in equine athletes.. Sci Rep 2024;14(1):16709.
  56. Carstensen H, Hesselkilde EZ, Haugaard MM. Effects of dofetilide and ranolazine on atrial fibrillatory rate in a horse model of acutely induced atrial fibrillation.. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2019;30(4):596‐606.
  57. Premont A, Saadeh K, Edling C, Lewis R, Marr CM, Jeevaratnam K. Cardiac ion channel expression in the equine model—in‐silico prediction utilising RNA sequencing data from mixed tissue samples.. Physiol Rep 2022;10(14):e15273.
  58. Alberti E, Stucchi L, Lo Feudo CM. Evaluation of cardiac arrhythmias before, during, and after treadmill exercise testing in poorly performing Standardbred racehorses.. Animals 2012;11(8):2413.
  59. Navas de Solis C. Exercising arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death in horses: review of the literature and comparative aspects.. Equine Vet J 2016;48(4):406‐413.
  60. Aune D, Schlesinger S, Hamer M, Norat T, Riboli E. Physical activity and the risk of sudden cardiac death: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of prospective studies.. BMC Cardiovasc Disord 2020;20(1):318.
  61. Lange‐Consiglio A, Stucchi L, Zucca E, Lavoie JP, Cremonesi F, Ferrucci F. Insights into animal models for cell‐based therapies in translational studies of lung diseases: is the horse with naturally occurring asthma the right choice?. Cytotherapy 2019;21(5):525‐534.
  62. Fahy JV. Type 2 inflammation in asthma—present in most, absent in many. Nat Rev Immunol 2015;15(1):57‐65.
  63. Höglund N, Koho N, Rossi H. Isolation of extracellular vesicles from the Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of healthy and asthmatic horses. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:894189.
  64. Manfredi JM, Jacob SI, Boger BL, Norton EM. A one‐health approach to identifying and mitigating the impact of endocrine disorders on human and equine athletes. Am J Vet Res 2022;84(2):1‐15.
  65. Johnson PJ, Wiedmeyer CE, LaCarrubba A, Ganjam VK, Messer NT. Diabetes, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome in horses. J Diabetes Sci Technol 2012;6(3):534‐540.
  66. Stefaniuk‐Szmukier M, Piórkowska K, Ropka‐Molik K. Equine metabolic syndrome: a complex disease influenced by multifactorial genetic factors. Genes (Basel) 2023;14(8):1544.
  67. Reynolds A, Keen JA, Fordham T, Morgan RA. Adipose tissue dysfunction in obese horses with equine metabolic syndrome. Equine Vet J 2019;51(6):760‐766.
  68. Carter R, McCutcheon L, George Sjaarda L, Smith T, Frank N, Geor R. Effects of diet‐induced gain on insulin sensitivity and plasma hormone and lipid concentrations in horses. Am J Vet Res 2009;70:1250‐1258.
  69. Marycz K, Szłapka‐Kosarzewska J, Geburek F, Kornicka‐Garbowska K. Systemic administration of rejuvenated adipose‐derived mesenchymal stem cells improves liver metabolism in equine metabolic syndrome (EMS)—new approach in veterinary regenerative medicine. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2019;15(6):842‐850.
  70. Waller A, Huettner L, Kohler K, Lacombe V. Novel link between inflammation and impaired glucose transport during equine insulin resistance. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2012;149(3–4):208‐215.
  71. Hodavance MS, Ralston S, Pelczer I. Beyond blood sugar: the potential of NMR‐based metabonomics for type 2 human diabetes, and the horse as a possible model. Anal Bioanal Chem 2007;387(2):533‐537.
  72. Riddle D, Stratford P. Body weight changes and corresponding changes in pain and function in persons with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis: a cohort study. Arthritis Care Res 2013;65(1):15‐22.
  73. Bamford N, Potter S, Baskerville C, Harris P, Bailey S. Influence of dietary restriction and low‐intensity exercise on weight loss and insulin sensitivity in obese equids. J Vet Intern Med 2019;33(1):280‐286.
  74. Delarocque J, Frers F, Huber K, Feige K, Warnken T. Weight loss is linearly associated with a reduction of the insulin response to an oral glucose test in Icelandic horses. BMC Vet Res 2020;16(1):151.
  75. Ertelt A, Barton AK, Schmitz RR, Gehlen H. Metabolic syndrome: is equine disease comparable to what we know in humans?. Endocr Connect 2014;3(3):R81‐R93.
  76. Ragno VM, Zello GA, Klein CD, Montgomery JB. From table to stable: a comparative review of selected aspects of human and equine metabolic syndrome.. J Equine Vet Sci 2019;79:131‐138.
  77. Seok J, Warren HS, Cuenca AG. Genomic responses in mouse models poorly mimic human inflammatory diseases.. Proc Natl Acad Sci 2013;110(9):3507‐3512.
  78. Noronha LE, Harman RM, Wagner B, Antczak DF. Generation and characterization of monoclonal antibodies to equine CD16.. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2012;146(2):135‐142.
  79. Karagianni A, Kapetanovic R, Summers K, McGorum B, Hume D, Pirie R. Comparative transcriptome analysis of equine alveolar macrophages.. Equine Vet J 2017;49(3):375‐382.
  80. Ayad A, Almarzook S, Besseboua O. Investigation of cerebellar abiotrophy (CA), lavender foal syndrome (LFS), and severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) variants in a cohort of three MENA region horse breeds.. Genes 2021;12(12):1893.
  81. Wiler R, Leber R, Moore BB, VanDyk LF, Perryman LE, Meek K. Equine severe combined immunodeficiency: a defect in V(D)J recombination and DNA‐dependent protein kinase activity.. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995;92(25):11485‐11489.
  82. Felippe MJ. Equine common variable immunodeficiency: lessons from 100 clinical cases.. Equine Vet Educ 2024;36:543‐554.
  83. Horohov DW. The equine immune responses to infectious and allergic disease: a model for humans?. Mol Immunol 2015;66(1):89‐96.
  84. Paillot R, Hannant D, Kydd J, Daly J. Vaccination against equine influenza: quid novi?. Vaccine 2006;24(19):4047‐4061.
  85. Leroux C, Cadoré J‐L, Montelaro R. Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV): what has HIV's country cousin got to tell us?. Vet Res 2004;35(4):485‐512.
  86. Dhondt KP, Horvat B. Henipavirus infections: lessons from animal models.. Pathogens 2013;2(2):264‐287.
  87. Porcellato I, Mecocci S, Mechelli L. Equine penile squamous cell carcinomas as a model for human disease: a preliminary investigation on tumor immune microenvironment.. Cells 2020;9(11):2364.
  88. Podstawski P, Samiec M, Skrzyszowska M, Szmatoła T, Semik‐Gurgul E, Ropka‐Molik K. The induced expression of BPV E4 gene in equine adult dermal fibroblast cells as a potential model of skin sarcoid‐like neoplasia.. Int J Mol Sci 2022;23(4):1970.
  89. Yuan Z, Gallagher A, Gault EA, Campo MS, Nasir L. Bovine papillomavirus infection in equine sarcoids and in bovine bladder cancers.. Vet J 2007;174(3):599‐604.
  90. Jindra C, Hainisch EK, Brandt S. Immunotherapy of equine sarcoids‐from early approaches to innovative vaccines.. Vaccines (Basel) 2023;11(4):769.
  91. Nasir L, Reid SW. Bovine papillomaviral gene expression in equine sarcoid tumours. Virus Res. 1999;61(2):171‐175.
  92. Hofmaier F, Hauck S, Amann B, Degroote R, Deeg C. Changes in matrix metalloproteinase network in a spontaneous autoimmune uveitis model. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011;52(5):2314‐2320.
  93. Eberdt C, Amann B, Feuchtinger A, Hauck SM, Deeg CA. Differential expression of inwardly rectifying K+ channels and aquaporins 4 and 5 in autoimmune uveitis indicates misbalance in Müller glial cell‐dependent ion and water homeostasis. Glia. 2011;59:697‐707.
  94. Witkowski L, Cywinska A, Paschalis‐Trela K, Crisman M, Kita J. Multiple etiologies of equine recurrent uveitis—a natural model for human autoimmune uveitis: a brief review. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2016;44:14‐20.
  95. Lees P, Higgins AJ, Sedgwick AD, May SA. Applications of equine models of acute inflammation. The Ciba‐Geigy prize for research in animal health. Vet Rec. 1987;120(22):522‐529.
  96. Karagianni AE, Lisowski ZM, Hume DA, Scott Pirie R. The equine mononuclear phagocyte system: the relevance of the horse as a model for understanding human innate immunity. Equine Vet J. 2021;53(2):231‐249.
  97. Mayaki AM, Abdul Razak IS, Noraniza MA, Mazlina M, Rasedee A. Biofluid markers of equine neurological disorders reviewed from human perspectives. J Equine Vet Sci. 2020;86:102907.
  98. Fortin JS, Hetak AA, Duggan KE, Burglass CM, Penticoff HB, Schott HC 2nd. Equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction: a spontaneous model of synucleinopathy. Sci Rep. 2021;11(1):16036.
  99. Brault LS, Famula TR, Penedo MC. Inheritance of cerebellar abiotrophy in Arabians. Am J Vet Res. 2011;72(7):940‐944.
  100. Abele M, Bürk K, Schöls L, et al. The aetiology of sporadic adult‐onset ataxia. Brain. 2002;125(5):961‐968.
  101. Aleman M, Finno CJ, Weich K, Penedo MCT. Investigation of known genetic mutations of Arabian horses in Egyptian Arabian foals with juvenile idiopathic epilepsy. J Vet Intern Med. 2018;32(1):465‐468.
  102. Aleman M, Gray LC, Williams DC, et al. Juvenile idiopathic epilepsy in Egyptian Arabian foals: 22 cases (1985–2005). J Vet Intern Med. 2006;20(6):1443‐1449.
  103. Aleman M, Benini R, Elestwani S, Vinardell T. Juvenile idiopathic epilepsy in Egyptian Arabian foals, a potential animal model of self‐limited epilepsy in children. J Vet Intern Med. 2024;38(1):449‐459.
  104. O' Brien C, O. Parker M, McBride S. Toward a diagnostic framework for the equine depressive phenotype: a narrative review. J Vet Behav. 2025;79:92‐107.
  105. EDITION F. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. American Psychiatric Association; 1980:205‐224.
  106. McBride S, Roberts K, Hemmings AJ, Ninomiya S, Parker MO. The impulsive horse: comparing genetic, physiological and behavioral indicators to those of human addiction. Physiol Behav. 2022;254:113896.
  107. Horvath S, Haghani A, Peng S, et al. DNA methylation aging and transcriptomic studies in horses. Nat Commun. 2022;13(1):40.
  108. Wiśniewska M, Janczarek I, Piwczyński D. The aging phenomenon of horses with reference to human–horse relations. J Equine Vet Sci. 2019;73:37‐42.
  109. Pappas LE, Nagy TR. The translation of age‐related body composition findings from rodents to humans. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2019;73(2):172‐178.
  110. DeNotta S, McFarlane D. Immunosenescence and inflammaging in the aged horse. Immun Ageing. 2023;20(1):2.
  111. Wagner PD. Determinants of V˙O2max: man vs. horse. J Equine Vet Sci. 1995;15(9):398‐404.
  112. Schrurs C, Dubois G, Patarin F, Cobb M, Gardner DS, Van Erck‐Westergren E. Cardiovascular and locomotory parameters during training in thoroughbred racehorses: a multi‐national study. Comp Exerc Physiol. 2022;18(3):185‐200.
  113. Myćka G, Ropka‐Molik K, Cywińska A, Szmatoła T, Stefaniuk‐Szmukier M. Molecular insights into the lipid‐carbohydrates metabolism switch under the endurance effort in Arabian horses. Equine Vet J. 2024;56(3):586‐597.
  114. Avison A, Physick‐Sheard PW, Pyle WG. Performance horses as a model for exercise‐associated cardiac arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. J Mol Cell Cardiol Plus. 2025;12:100452.
  115. Witkowska‐Piłaszewicz O, Malin K, Dąbrowska I, Grzędzicka J, Ostaszewski P, Carter C. Immunology of physical exercise: is Equus caballus an appropriate animal model for human athletes? Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(10):5210.
  116. Reißmann M, Rajavel A, Kokov ZA, Schmitt AO. Identification of differentially expressed genes after endurance runs in Karbadian horses to determine candidates for stress indicators and performance capability. Genes (Basel). 2023;14(11):1982.
  117. Myćka G, Ropka‐Molik K, Cywińska A, Stefaniuk‐Szmukier M. Endurance effort affected expression of Actinin 3 and klotho different isoforms basing on the Arabian horses model. Genes. 2024;15(12):1618.
  118. Peña O, del Enriquez Castillo L, González‐Chávez S, et al. Prevalence of polymorphism and post‐training expression of ACTN3 (R/X) and ACE (I/D) genes in CrossFit athletes. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2023;20:4404.
  119. Carnevale EM, Catandi GD, Fresa K. Equine aging and the oocyte: a potential model for reproductive aging in women. J Equine Vet Sci. 2020;89:103022.
  120. Rizzo M, du Preez N, Ducheyne KD, et al. The horse as a natural model to study reproductive aging‐induced aneuploidy and weakened centromeric cohesion in oocytes. Aging (Albany NY). 2020;12:22220‐22232.
  121. Manfredi JM, Jacob SI, Boger BL, Norton EM. A one‐health approach to identifying and mitigating the impact of endocrine disorders on human and equine athletes. Am J Vet Res. 2023;84(2).ajvr.22.11.0194. doi:10.2460/ajvr.22.11.0194
  122. Burnett M, Norton E. Advancing equine health through genetic and environmental research: a one health approach. Am J Vet Res. 2025;86(5):ajvr.25.03.0079. doi:10.2460/ajvr.25.03.0079
  123. Ferreira‐Dias GM, Alpoim‐Moreira J, Szóstek‐Mioduchowska A, Rebordão MR, Skarzynski DJ. The path to fertility: current approaches to mare endometritis and endometrosis. Anim Reprod. 2024;21(3):e20240070.
  124. Lawson JM, Salem SE, Miller D, et al. Naturally occurring horse model of miscarriage reveals temporal relationship between chromosomal aberration type and point of lethality. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2024;121(33):e2405636121.
  125. Cortez JV, Hardwicke K, Cuervo‐Arango J, Grupen CG. Cloning horses by somatic cell nuclear transfer: effects of oocyte source on development to foaling. Theriogenology. 2023;203:99‐108.
  126. Benammar A, Derisoud E, Vialard F, et al. The Mare: a pertinent model for human assisted reproductive technologies? Animals. 2021;11(8):2304.
  127. Ribitsch I, Baptista PM, Lange‐Consiglio A, et al. Large animal models in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering: to do or not to do. Front Bioeng Biotechnol. 2020;8:972.
  128. Gray M, Guido S, Kugadas A. Editorial: the use of large animal models to improve pre‐clinical translational research. Front Vet Sci. 2022;9:1086912.
  129. Lönker NS, Fechner K, Abd El Wahed A. Horses as a crucial part of one health. Vet Sci. 2020;7(1):28.
  130. Young R, Bush SJ, Lefevre L, et al. Species‐specific transcriptional regulation of genes involved in nitric oxide production and arginine metabolism in macrophages. Immunohorizons. 2018;2(1):27‐37.
  131. Kapetanovic R, Fairbairn L, Beraldi D, et al. Pig bone marrow‐derived macrophages resemble human macrophages in their response to bacterial lipopolysaccharide. J Immunol. 2012;188(7):3382‐3394.
  132. Wade C, Giulotto E, Sigurdsson S, et al. Genome sequence, comparative analysis, and population genetics of the domestic horse. Science. 2009;326(5954):865‐867.
  133. Swinburne JE, Bogle H, Klukowska‐Rötzler J, et al. A whole‐genome scan for recurrent airway obstruction in warmblood sport horses indicates two positional candidate regions. Mamm Genome. 2009;20(8):504‐515.
  134. Milenkovic D, Oustry‐Vaiman A, Lear TL, et al. Cytogenetic localization of 136 genes in the horse: comparative mapping with the human genome. Mamm Genome. 2002;13(9):524‐534.
  135. Steinbach F, Stark R, Ibrahim S, et al. Molecular cloning and characterization of markers and cytokines for equid myeloid cells. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2005;108(1–2):227‐236.
  136. Tompkins D, Hudgens E, Horohov D, Baldwin CL. Expressed gene sequences of the equine cytokines interleukin‐17 and interleukin‐23. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2010;133(2–4):309‐313.
  137. Hudgens E, Tompkins D, Boyd P, Lunney JK, Horohov D, Baldwin CL. Expressed gene sequence of the IFNγ‐response chemokine CXCL9 of cattle, horses, and swine. Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2011;141(3–4):317‐321.
  138. Moro LN, Viale DL, Bastón JI, et al. Generation of myostatin edited horse embryos using CRISPR/Cas9 technology and somatic cell nuclear transfer. Sci Rep. 2020;10(1):15587.
  139. Raudsepp T, Finno CJ, Bellone RR, Petersen JL. Ten years of the horse reference genome: insights into equine biology, domestication and population dynamics in the post‐genome era. Anim Genet. 2019;50(6):569‐597.
  140. Coleman SJ, Zeng Z, Hestand MS, Liu J, Macleod JN. Analysis of unannotated equine transcripts identified by mRNA sequencing. PLoS One. 2013;8(7):e70125.
  141. Lossi L. Anatomical features for an adequate choice of the experimental animal model in biomedicine: III. Ferret, goat, sheep, and horse. Ann Anat. 2022;244:151978.

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,132 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.