FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Viruses2024; 16(2); 224; doi: 10.3390/v16020224

Serological and Molecular Investigation of SARS-CoV-2 in Horses and Cattle in Switzerland from 2020 to 2022.

Abstract: Horses and cattle have shown low susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, and there is no evidence of experimental intraspecies transmission. Nonetheless, seropositive horses in the US and seropositive cattle in Germany and Italy have been reported. The current study investigated the prevalence of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in horses and cattle in Switzerland. In total, 1940 serum and plasma samples from 1110 horses and 830 cattle were screened with a species-specific ELISA based on the SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain (RBD) and, in the case of suspect positive results, a surrogate virus neutralization test (sVNT) was used to demonstrate the neutralizing activity of the antibodies. Further confirmation of suspect positive samples was performed using either a pseudotype-based virus neutralization assay (PVNA; horses) or an indirect immunofluorescence test (IFA; cattle). The animals were sampled between February 2020 and December 2022. Additionally, in total, 486 bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), oropharyngeal, nasal and rectal swab samples from horses and cattle were analyzed for the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA via reverse transcriptase quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Six horses (0.5%; 95% CI: 0.2-1.2%) were suspect positive via RBD-ELISA, and neutralizing antibodies were detected in two of them via confirmatory sVNT and PVNA tests. In the PVNA, the highest titers were measured against the Alpha and Delta SARS-CoV-2 variants. Fifteen cattle (1.8%; 95% CI: 1.0-3.0%) were suspect positive in RBD-ELISA; 3 of them had SARS-CoV-2-specific neutralizing antibodies in sVNT and 4 of the 15 were confirmed to be positive via IFA. All tested samples were RT-qPCR-negative. The results support the hypotheses that the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 infections in horses and cattle in Switzerland was low up to the end of 2022.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2024-01-31 PubMed ID: 38400000PubMed Central: PMC10892882DOI: 10.3390/v16020224Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This study investigated how common SARS-CoV-2 infection was in horses and cattle in Switzerland between 2020 and 2022 by testing for antibodies and viral RNA in blood and swab samples.
  • The research found a very low prevalence of past SARS-CoV-2 infections in these animals and no evidence of active infection during the sampling period.

Background and Purpose

  • Horses and cattle generally show low susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19.
  • Previous studies detected some seropositive (antibody-positive) horses in the US and cattle in Germany and Italy, suggesting rare infections might occur.
  • This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and viral genome presence in Swiss horses and cattle over nearly three years, covering different phases of the pandemic.

Study Design and Sampling

  • Samples collected from February 2020 to December 2022 included:
    • 1,940 serum and plasma samples total—1,110 from horses; 830 from cattle.
    • 486 swab samples (bronchoalveolar lavage, oropharyngeal, nasal, and rectal) from both species for direct viral RNA testing.
  • Sample sizes provided a robust dataset to assess virus exposure and active infection.

Laboratory Testing Methods

  • Antibody detection:
    • Initial screening via species-specific ELISA targeting the SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain (RBD) to detect antibodies indicative of prior infection.
    • Suspect positive samples were further tested by surrogate virus neutralization test (sVNT) to check for neutralizing antibodies.
    • Confirmatory tests included:
      • Pseudotype-based virus neutralization assay (PVNA) for horses to evaluate antibody neutralization against specific viral variants.
      • Indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) for cattle to visually confirm antibody presence.
  • Active infection detection:
    • RT-qPCR was performed on swab samples to detect viral RNA, indicating current infection.

Results

  • Horses:
    • Six horses (0.5% of tested horses) had suspect positive ELISA results.
    • Neutralizing antibodies were confirmed in two horses using sVNT and PVNA, with the highest neutralization titers against Alpha and Delta variants, indicating exposure to those forms of the virus.
  • Cattle:
    • Fifteen cattle (1.8% of tested cattle) showed suspect ELISA positivity.
    • Among them, 3 had neutralizing antibodies in sVNT tests; 4 were confirmed positive using IFA.
  • All tested swab samples from both species were negative for SARS-CoV-2 RNA by RT-qPCR, showing no active infection at the time of sampling.

Interpretation and Implications

  • The low percentages of seropositive animals indicate that SARS-CoV-2 infection was rare in horses and cattle in Switzerland during the study period.
  • The detection of neutralizing antibodies in a small number suggests that some animals were exposed to the virus, likely through contact with infected humans or environmental contamination, but intraspecies transmission is minimal or absent.
  • The absence of viral RNA in swab samples suggests no ongoing outbreaks or sustained infection chains in these animal populations.
  • These findings align with previous research showing that horses and cattle have limited susceptibility and do not contribute significantly to the transmission cycle of SARS-CoV-2.

Study Strengths and Limitations

  • Strengths:
    • Large sample size across multiple years offering comprehensive surveillance data.
    • Use of multiple confirmatory assays to validate antibody findings and assess neutralizing capability against major SARS-CoV-2 variants.
  • Limitations:
    • ELISA suspect positives had relatively low prevalence, so interpretations must consider possible cross-reactivity or false positives.
    • The study design does not establish how the animals were exposed or the source of infection, only evidence of past exposure or lack thereof.

Conclusion

  • This comprehensive serological and molecular study supports the conclusion that SARS-CoV-2 infections in Swiss horses and cattle were rare through 2022.
  • Monitoring domestic animals remains important, but these species appear unlikely to serve as reservoirs or vectors for sustained SARS-CoV-2 transmission.

Cite This Article

APA
Hüttl J, Reitt K, Meli ML, Meili T, Bönzli E, Pineroli B, Ginders J, Schoster A, Jones S, Tyson GB, Hosie MJ, Pusterla N, Wernike K, Hofmann-Lehmann R. (2024). Serological and Molecular Investigation of SARS-CoV-2 in Horses and Cattle in Switzerland from 2020 to 2022. Viruses, 16(2), 224. https://doi.org/10.3390/v16020224

Publication

Viruses
ISSN: 1999-4915
NlmUniqueID: 101509722
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 16
Issue: 2
PII: 224

Researcher Affiliations

Hüttl, Julia
  • Center for Laboratory Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic Services, Frohbergstrasse 3, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland.
  • Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
Reitt, Katja
  • Center for Laboratory Medicine, Veterinary Diagnostic Services, Frohbergstrasse 3, 9001 St. Gallen, Switzerland.
Meli, Marina L
  • Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
Meili, Theres
  • Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
Bönzli, Eva
  • Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
Pineroli, Benita
  • Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
Ginders, Julia
  • Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
Schoster, Angelika
  • Clinic for Equine Internal Medicine, Equine Department, University of Zurich, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
Jones, Sarah
  • School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK.
Tyson, Grace B
  • School of Biodiversity, One Health and Veterinary Medicine, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK.
  • MRC-University of Glasgow, Centre for Virus Research, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK.
Hosie, Margaret J
  • MRC-University of Glasgow, Centre for Virus Research, Bearsden Road, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK.
Pusterla, Nicola
  • Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
Wernike, Kerstin
  • Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut (FLI), Suedufer 10, 17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
Hofmann-Lehmann, Regina
  • Clinical Laboratory, Vetsuisse Faculty, Department of Clinical Diagnostics and Services, and Center for Clinical Studies, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, 8057 Zurich, Switzerland.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Cattle
  • Horses
  • SARS-CoV-2 / genetics
  • COVID-19 / diagnosis
  • COVID-19 / epidemiology
  • COVID-19 / veterinary
  • Switzerland / epidemiology
  • RNA, Viral
  • Antibodies, Neutralizing
  • Antibodies, Viral

Grant Funding

  • MC_PC_19026 / Medical Research Council
  • MC_UU_00034/6 / Medical Research Council
  • G-53420-01-01 / Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office (Bundesamt für Lebensmittelsicherheit und Veter-inärwesen, BLV

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

References

This article includes 29 references
  1. WOAH COVID-19—Events in Animals. [(accessed on 13 December 2023)]. Available online: https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-offer/emergency-preparedness/covid-19/#ui-id-3.
  2. vetmeduni Coplexity Science Hub Vienna, SARS-ANI VIS: A Global Open Access Dataset of Reported SARS-CoV-2 Events in Animals. [(accessed on 13 December 2023)]. Available online: https://vis.csh.ac.at/sars-ani/#overview.
  3. Oude Munnink B.B., Sikkema R.S., Nieuwenhuijse D.F., Molenaar R.J., Munger E., Molenkamp R., van der Spek A., Tolsma P., Rietveld A., Brouwer M.. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 on mink farms between humans and mink and back to humans. Science 2021;371:172–177.
    doi: 10.1126/science.abe5901pmc: PMC7857398pubmed: 33172935google scholar: lookup
  4. Feng A., Bevins S., Chandler J., DeLiberto T.J., Ghai R., Lantz K., Lenoch J., Retchless A., Shriner S., Tang C.Y.. Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in free-ranging white-tailed deer in the United States. Nat. Commun. 2023;14:4078.
    doi: 10.1038/s41467-023-39782-xpmc: PMC10333304pubmed: 37429851google scholar: lookup
  5. Newman A., Smith D., Ghai R.R., Wallace R.M., Torchetti M.K., Loiacono C., Murrell L.S., Carpenter A., Moroff S., Rooney J.A.. First Reported Cases of SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Companion Animals—New York, March–April 2020. MMWR Morb. Mortal Wkly. Rep. 2020;69:710–713.
    doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6923e3pmc: PMC7315787pubmed: 32525853google scholar: lookup
  6. Sit T.H.C., Brackman C.J., Ip S.M., Tam K.W.S., Law P.Y.T., To E.M.W., Yu V.Y.T., Sims L.D., Tsang D.N.C., Chu D.K.W.. Infection of dogs with SARS-CoV-2. Nature 2020;586:776–778.
    doi: 10.1038/s41586-020-2334-5pmc: PMC7606701pubmed: 32408337google scholar: lookup
  7. Luan J., Lu Y., Jin X., Zhang L.. Spike protein recognition of mammalian ACE2 predicts the host range and an optimized ACE2 for SARS-CoV-2 infection. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2020;526:165–169.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2020.03.047pmc: PMC7102515pubmed: 32201080google scholar: lookup
  8. Damas J., Hughes G.M., Keough K.C., Painter C.A., Persky N.S., Corbo M., Hiller M., Koepfli K.P., Pfenning A.R., Zhao H.. Broad host range of SARS-CoV-2 predicted by comparative and structural analysis of ACE2 in vertebrates. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2020;117:22311–22322.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.2010146117pmc: PMC7486773pubmed: 32826334google scholar: lookup
  9. Di Teodoro G., Valleriani F., Puglia I., Monaco F., Di Pancrazio C., Luciani M., Krasteva I., Petrini A., Marcacci M., D’Alterio N.. SARS-CoV-2 replicates in respiratory ex vivo organ cultures of domestic ruminant species. Vet. Microbiol. 2021;252:108933.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2020.108933pmc: PMC7685048pubmed: 33278734google scholar: lookup
  10. Lean F.Z.X., Nunez A., Spiro S., Priestnall S.L., Vreman S., Bailey D., James J., Wrigglesworth E., Suarez-Bonnet A., Conceicao C.. Differential susceptibility of SARS-CoV-2 in animals: Evidence of ACE2 host receptor distribution in companion animals, livestock and wildlife by immunohistochemical characterisation. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2022;69:2275–2286.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.14232pmc: PMC8447087pubmed: 34245662google scholar: lookup
  11. Bosco-Lauth A.M., Walker A., Guilbert L., Porter S., Hartwig A., McVicker E., Bielefeldt-Ohmann H., Bowen R.A.. Susceptibility of livestock to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2021;10:2199–2201.
    doi: 10.1080/22221751.2021.2003724pmc: PMC8635583pubmed: 34749583google scholar: lookup
  12. Lawton K.O.Y., Arthur R.M., Moeller B.C., Barnum S., Pusterla N.. Investigation of the Role of Healthy and Sick Equids in the COVID-19 Pandemic through Serological and Molecular Testing. Animals 2022;12:614.
    doi: 10.3390/ani12050614pmc: PMC8909032pubmed: 35268183google scholar: lookup
  13. Pusterla N., Chaillon A., Ignacio C., Smith D.M., Barnum S., Lawton K.O.Y., Smith G., Pickering B.. SARS-CoV-2 Seroconversion in an Adult Horse with Direct Contact to a COVID-19 Individual. Viruses 2022;14:1047.
    doi: 10.3390/v14051047pmc: PMC9145940pubmed: 35632788google scholar: lookup
  14. Lawton K., Keller S.M., Barnum S., Arredondo-Lopez C., Spann K., Pusterla N.. Seroprevalence of SARS-CoV-2 in 1186 Equids Presented to a Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital in California from 2020 to 2022. Viruses 2022;14:2497.
    doi: 10.3390/v14112497pmc: PMC9696554pubmed: 36423106google scholar: lookup
  15. Chandler J.C., Bevins S.N., Ellis J.W., Linder T.J., Tell R.M., Jenkins-Moore M., Root J.J., Lenoch J.B., Robbe-Austerman S., DeLiberto T.J.. SARS-CoV-2 exposure in wild white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2021;118:e2114828118.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.2114828118pmc: PMC8617405pubmed: 34732584google scholar: lookup
  16. Cool K., Gaudreault N.N., Morozov I., Trujillo J.D., Meekins D.A., McDowell C., Carossino M., Bold D., Mitzel D., Kwon T.. Infection and transmission of ancestral SARS-CoV-2 and its alpha variant in pregnant white-tailed deer. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 2022;11:95–112.
    doi: 10.1080/22221751.2021.2012528pmc: PMC8725908pubmed: 34842046google scholar: lookup
  17. Ulrich L., Wernike K., Hoffmann D., Mettenleiter T.C., Beer M.. Experimental Infection of Cattle with SARS-CoV-2. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2020;26:2979–2981.
    doi: 10.3201/eid2612.203799pmc: PMC7706945pubmed: 33034284google scholar: lookup
  18. Wernike K., Böttcher J., Amelung S., Albrecht K., Gärtner T., Donat K., Beer M.. Antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 Suggestive of Single Events of Spillover to Cattle, Germany. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2022;28:1916–1918.
    doi: 10.3201/eid2809.220125pmc: PMC9423924pubmed: 35914515google scholar: lookup
  19. Fiorito F., Iovane V., Pagnini U., Cerracchio C., Brandi S., Levante M., Marati L., Ferrara G., Tammaro V., De Carlo E.. First Description of Serological Evidence for SARS-CoV-2 in Lactating Cows. Animals 2022;12:1459.
    doi: 10.3390/ani12111459pmc: PMC9179237pubmed: 35681922google scholar: lookup
  20. Forni D., Cagliani R., Clerici M., Sironi M.. Molecular Evolution of Human Coronavirus Genomes. Trends Microbiol. 2017;25:35–48.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2016.09.001pmc: PMC7111218pubmed: 27743750google scholar: lookup
  21. Klaus J., Zini E., Hartmann K., Egberink H., Kipar A., Bergmann M., Palizzotto C., Zhao S., Rossi F., Franco V.. SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Dogs and Cats from Southern Germany and Northern Italy during the First Wave of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Viruses 2021;13:1453.
    doi: 10.3390/v13081453pmc: PMC8402904pubmed: 34452319google scholar: lookup
  22. Embregts C.W.E., Verstrepen B., Langermans J.A.M., Boszormenyi K.P., Sikkema R.S., de Vries R.D., Hoffmann D., Wernike K., Smit L.A.M., Zhao S.. Evaluation of a multi-species SARS-CoV-2 surrogate virus neutralization test. One Health 2021;13:100313.
    doi: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2021.100313pmc: PMC8378998pubmed: 34458548google scholar: lookup
  23. Tyson G.B., Jones S., Montreuil-Spencer C., Logan N., Scott S., Sasvari H., McDonald M., Marshall L., Murcia P.R., Willett B.J.. Increase in SARS-CoV-2 Seroprevalence in UK Domestic Felids Despite Weak Immunogenicity of Post-Omicron Variants. Viruses 2023;15:1661.
    doi: 10.3390/v15081661pmc: PMC10458763pubmed: 37632004google scholar: lookup
  24. Kuhlmeier E., Chan T., Klaus J., Pineroli B., Geisser E., Hofmann-Lehmann R., Meli M.L.. A Pre- and Within-Pandemic Survey of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in Saliva Swabs from Stray Cats in Switzerland. Viruses 2022;14:681.
    doi: 10.3390/v14040681pmc: PMC9024816pubmed: 35458411google scholar: lookup
  25. Krentz D., Zwicklbauer K., Felten S., Bergmann M., Dorsch R., Hofmann-Lehmann R., Meli M.L., Spiri A.M., von Both U., Alberer M.. Clinical Follow-Up and Postmortem Findings in a Cat That Was Cured of Feline Infectious Peritonitis with an Oral Antiviral Drug Containing GS-441524. Viruses 2022;14:2040.
    doi: 10.3390/v14092040pmc: PMC9506130pubmed: 36146845google scholar: lookup
  26. Bundesamt für Gesundheit BAG COVID-19 Switzerland. [(accessed on 13 December 2023)]; Available online: https://www.covid19.admin.ch/de/epidemiologic/virus-variants?variantZoomHospSeg=2022-04-10_2022-07-24.
  27. Wernike K., Aebischer A., Michelitsch A., Hoffmann D., Freuling C., Balkema-Buschmann A., Graaf A., Müller T., Osterrieder N., Rissmann M.. Multi-species ELISA for the detection of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 in animals. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2021;68:1779–1785.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13926pmc: PMC7753575pubmed: 33191578google scholar: lookup
  28. Decaro N., Grassi A., Lorusso E., Patterson E.I., Lorusso A., Desario C., Anderson E.R., Vasinioti V., Wastika C.E., Hughes G.L.. Long-term persistence of neutralizing SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in pets. Transbound. Emerg. Dis. 2022;69:3073–3076.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.14308pmc: PMC8662060pubmed: 34469620google scholar: lookup
  29. Wernike K., Böttcher J., Amelung S., Albrecht K., Gärtner T., Donat K., Beer M.. Serological screening suggests single SARS-CoV-2 spillover events to cattle. bioRxiv 2022.
    doi: 10.1101/2022.01.17.476608pmc: PMC9423924pubmed: 35914515google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 5 times.
  1. Fusco G, Picazio G, de Martinis C, Cardillo L, Brandi S, Martucciello A, Barca L, Riccelli E, Fiorito F, Pucciarelli A, Decaro N. Bovine coronavirus and SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence in livestock: marked host-species differences and insights from the first large-scale neutralization survey. Sci Rep 2026 Feb 12;16(1).
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-026-40159-5pubmed: 41680475google scholar: lookup
  2. Kouadria W, Poder SL, van Maanen K, Seuberlich T, Dawson KLD, Zientara S, Laabassi F. First serological evidence of equine coronavirus and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 in horses in North Africa. Vet Res Commun 2025 Oct 4;49(6):347.
    doi: 10.1007/s11259-025-10928-0pubmed: 41045398google scholar: lookup
  3. Palmer MV, Buckley A, Cassmann ED, Olsen SC, Nielsen DW, Putz EJ, Seger H, Chandler JC, Boggiatto PM. Permissiveness of American bison to infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2. Sci Rep 2025 Sep 29;15(1):33636.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-10100-3pubmed: 41022915google scholar: lookup
  4. Zabiegala A, Kim Y, Chang KO. Host susceptibilities and entry processes of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variants using pseudotyped viruses carrying spike protein. BMC Vet Res 2025 May 27;21(1):377.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-025-04822-9pubmed: 40426227google scholar: lookup
  5. Ramasamy S, Quraishi M, Mukherjee S, Mahajan S, LaBella LC, Chothe SK, Jakka P, Gontu A, Misra S, Surendran-Nair M, Nissly RH, Kuchipudi SV. Serological Assays Reveal No Evidence of Natural SARS-CoV-2 Infection in US Cattle. Microorganisms 2025 Mar 5;13(3).
    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms13030600pubmed: 40142493google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,928 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.