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PLoS neglected tropical diseases2025; 19(12); e0013303; doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0013303

Seroprevalence and risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild, domestic and companion animals in urban informal settlements from Salvador, Brazil.

Abstract: Toxoplasma gondii is a globally neglected zoonotic parasite, particularly prevalent in socioeconomically vulnerable areas. Various animal species serve as reservoirs for T. gondii across different regions, including domestic cats, livestock, and a variety of wild and synanthropic animals. In urban areas, especially informal settlements, the close coexistence of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife may influence local transmission dynamics. This study evaluated the seroprevalence and associated risk factors for T. gondii infection in domestic and synanthropic animals from two low-income neighborhoods in Salvador, Brazil. A cross-sectional study was conducted in the neighborhoods of Marechal Rondon and Pau da Lima from October 2021 to February 2023. Blood samples were collected from domestic animals (288 dogs, 112 cats, 27 chickens, and six horses) and synanthropic species (54 brown rats and 75 big-eared opossums). Serological tests were performed using an indirect immunofluorescence antibody test. Questionnaires were used to collect environmental, demographic, and socioeconomic data from households where sampling took place. Generalized linear mixed models were applied to identify predictors of exposure. Seroprevalence was highest in chickens (66.7%), followed by dogs (37.2%), rats (24.1%), cats (22.3%), opossums (20%), and horses (16.7%). No significant factors were found to be associated with T. gondii seroprevalence in chickens, horses, rats, or opossums. Nevertheless, in dogs and cats, homemade diets increased the odds of infection by nearly six times compared to commercial feeding. Dogs from Pau da Lima were twice as likely to be infected as those from Marechal Rondon. These findings underscore the importance of promoting safe pet management, improving sanitation, and monitoring sentinel species to mitigate zoonotic risks in urban informal settlements.
Copyright: © 2025 Bazan et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
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Publication Date: 2025-12-16 PubMed ID: 41401226PubMed Central: PMC12725734DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0013303Google Scholar: Lookup
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  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Objective Overview

  • This study investigated the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection among various domestic and wild animals living in low-income urban areas of Salvador, Brazil, and identified factors that increase the risk of infection.

Background

  • Toxoplasma gondii is a parasite that can infect most warm-blooded animals, including humans, and is transmitted through contact with infected animals or contaminated environments.
  • The parasite is especially important in socioeconomically vulnerable areas due to close living quarters and poor sanitation.
  • Animals like domestic cats, livestock, and wild animals can act as reservoirs, maintaining and spreading the parasite in communities.
  • Urban informal settlements often have close interaction between humans, pets, livestock, and wild animals, affecting how the parasite spreads locally.

Study Design

  • A cross-sectional study was carried out from October 2021 to February 2023 in two low-income neighborhoods of Salvador, Brazil: Marechal Rondon and Pau da Lima.
  • Blood samples were collected from multiple animal species living in these areas, including:
    • Domestic animals: 288 dogs, 112 cats, 27 chickens, and 6 horses
    • Synanthropic (wild species living close to humans): 54 brown rats and 75 big-eared opossums
  • Serological testing was performed using an indirect immunofluorescence antibody test to detect antibodies against T. gondii, indicating exposure/infection.
  • Household-level questionnaires captured environmental, demographic, and socioeconomic information to analyze potential risk factors for infection.
  • Generalized linear mixed models were used statistically to identify factors predicting seropositivity among animals.

Key Findings: Seroprevalence by Species

  • Highest seroprevalence was observed in:
    • Chickens: 66.7%
    • Dogs: 37.2%
    • Rats: 24.1%
    • Cats: 22.3%
    • Opossums: 20%
    • Horses: 16.7%
  • The presence of infection in a broad range of species highlights the wide environmental contamination and potential for transmission in urban informal settlements.

Risk Factors Associated with Infection

  • No significant risk factors were identified for infection in chickens, horses, rats, or opossums.
  • For dogs and cats, important risk factors related to feeding practices were found:
    • Animals fed homemade diets had nearly six times greater odds of T. gondii infection compared to those fed commercial pet food.
    • This could indicate contamination risks from raw or undercooked meat or food preparation practices associated with homemade diets.
  • Geographical difference:
    • Dogs from Pau da Lima were twice as likely to be infected than those from Marechal Rondon, suggesting local environmental or management differences influencing exposure risk.

Public Health Implications

  • These findings demonstrate that multiple animal species in urban informal settlements carry T. gondii, potentially placing humans living nearby at increased risk of infection.
  • Improving pet management practices, such as promoting safe feeding habits (reducing homemade/raw diets), could decrease infection rates in companion animals.
  • Enhancing sanitation measures to reduce environmental contamination is critical to controlling transmission in these vulnerable neighborhoods.
  • Monitoring animals like dogs and cats as sentinel species can help track T. gondii presence and guide interventions to lower zoonotic transmission.

Conclusion

  • The study emphasizes the importance of integrated approaches combining environmental sanitation, education on pet feeding, and surveillance of domestic and synanthropic animals to mitigate Toxoplasma gondii infection risks in socioeconomically vulnerable urban areas.

Cite This Article

APA
Bazan L, Argibay HD, Borges-Silva W, Pita Gondim LF, Dos Santos Mattos TA, Santana JO, da Silva EM, Begon M, Khalil H, Costa F, de Oliveira Carneiro I. (2025). Seroprevalence and risk factors for Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild, domestic and companion animals in urban informal settlements from Salvador, Brazil. PLoS Negl Trop Dis, 19(12), e0013303. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0013303

Publication

PLoS neglected tropical diseases
ISSN: 1935-2735
NlmUniqueID: 101291488
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 19
Issue: 12
Pages: e0013303
PII: e0013303

Researcher Affiliations

Bazan, Leonela
  • Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
Argibay, Hernán Darío
  • Institute of Collective Health, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
Borges-Silva, Waléria
  • School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
Pita Gondim, Luís Fernando
  • School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
Dos Santos Mattos, Thaís Auxiliadora
  • Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Ministry of Health, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
Santana, Juliete Oliveira
  • Gonçalo Moniz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Ministry of Health, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
da Silva, Eduardo Mendes
  • Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
Begon, Michael
  • Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
Khalil, Hussein
  • Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden.
Costa, Federico
  • Institute of Biology, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
  • Institute of Collective Health, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
  • Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, United States of America.
de Oliveira Carneiro, Ianei
  • School of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Science, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Brazil / epidemiology
  • Seroepidemiologic Studies
  • Risk Factors
  • Toxoplasmosis, Animal / epidemiology
  • Toxoplasmosis, Animal / parasitology
  • Toxoplasma / immunology
  • Toxoplasma / isolation & purification
  • Cats
  • Dogs
  • Cross-Sectional Studies
  • Pets / parasitology
  • Animals, Domestic / parasitology
  • Rats
  • Animals, Wild / parasitology
  • Antibodies, Protozoan / blood
  • Male
  • Female
  • Horses
  • Humans
  • Chickens / parasitology
  • Zoonoses / epidemiology
  • Zoonoses / parasitology
  • Opossums / parasitology

Grant Funding

  • Wellcome Trust

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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