FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Microbiology spectrum2026; 14(8); e0291625; doi: 10.1128/spectrum.02916-25

Systematic establishment of approaches to the detection of equine macrophage polarization and their application in pathogenic infection.

Abstract: Macrophage phenotypic adaptation critically regulates inflammatory balance during infection; however, progress in equine immunology has been limited by a lack of specific tools for standardized identification. To address this gap, we established a reliable, antibody-based detection method for characterizing equine macrophage M1-like and M2-like marker profiles. After initially validating canonical marker genes via qPCR, we developed specific monoclonal antibodies targeting the differentially expressed surface proteins CD80 (M1-like) and CD163 (M2-like). These novel antibodies enabled the creation of a multi-modal detection approach combining flow cytometry, western blotting, and qPCR. Applying this methodology revealed distinct pathogen-specific marker profiles: , equine herpesvirus (EHV-1), and equine arteritis virus (EAV) promoted an early M1-like profile, whereas an attenuated equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) strain drove an M2-like phenotype. Ultimately, this work provides a validated detection system for equine macrophage phenotyping, establishing a critical foundation for future research into host-pathogen interactions and targeted therapeutics.IMPORTANCEMacrophage phenotypic adaptation plays a critical role in infectious diseases, as pathogens often manipulate these states to evade immune responses or drive damaging inflammation. Accurately monitoring these functional shifts is vital for guiding disease treatment and evaluating vaccines. However, standardized detection tools for equine macrophages have been lacking. In this study, we established a reliable, antibody-based method utilizing novel monoclonal antibodies against equine CD80 and CD163 to identify M1-like and M2-like marker profiles. This straightforward and highly specific approach overcomes the limitations of previous indirect methods, providing a critical, accessible tool for assessing macrophage responses to equine pathogens and advancing veterinary immunology.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2026-07-06 PubMed ID: 42405787PubMed Central: PMC13436364DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02916-25Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This research developed and validated specific antibody-based methods to accurately detect and distinguish different functional states (M1-like and M2-like) of equine macrophages.
  • The new detection system enables better understanding of how equine macrophages respond to various pathogenic infections, facilitating improved studies and therapeutic strategies.

Introduction and Background

  • Macrophages are immune cells that adapt their functional phenotype in response to infection and inflammation.
  • The two main activation states—M1-like (pro-inflammatory) and M2-like (anti-inflammatory or tissue repair)—critically regulate immune balance.
  • Pathogens often manipulate macrophage polarization to evade immune defenses or promote damaging inflammation.
  • Despite their importance, progress in studying equine macrophages has been hampered by a lack of specific, standardized detection methods for these phenotypes.

Research Objectives

  • To establish reliable, antibody-based detection methods specifically targeting equine macrophage polarization markers.
  • To create tools capable of distinguishing M1-like and M2-like macrophages using surface proteins rather than indirect gene expression alone.
  • To apply these new tools in experiments with different equine pathogens to observe resultant macrophage phenotype changes.

Methodological Approach

  • Validated known macrophage polarization markers (canonical genes) using quantitative PCR (qPCR).
  • Developed monoclonal antibodies targeting key surface proteins:
    • CD80 as a marker for M1-like macrophages
    • CD163 as a marker for M2-like macrophages
  • Combined these specific antibody tools into a multi-modal detection system including flow cytometry, western blotting, and qPCR.

Key Findings

  • The new monoclonal antibodies efficiently and specifically identified M1-like and M2-like equine macrophage populations.
  • Different equine pathogens induced distinct macrophage polarization profiles:
    • Equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) and equine arteritis virus (EAV) triggered an early M1-like, pro-inflammatory phenotype.
    • An attenuated strain of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) promoted an M2-like, anti-inflammatory phenotype.
  • These results demonstrate that macrophage phenotypes can be pathogen-specific and dynamically regulated during infection.

Significance and Implications

  • This work fills a critical gap in equine immunology by providing standardized, validated tools to detect and monitor macrophage polarization states.
  • The antibody-based approach is straightforward, specific, and applicable in multiple laboratory assays, improving accuracy over previous indirect detection methods.
  • Having reliable detection of macrophage states is essential to investigate host-pathogen interactions in horses, guiding the development of targeted immunotherapies and better vaccine evaluations.
  • The methodology can accelerate research into how equine macrophages respond to infection, inflammation, and potentially other disease contexts beyond infectious agents.

Conclusions

  • The study successfully established novel monoclonal antibodies against equine CD80 and CD163 as markers of macrophage polarization.
  • Implementing a multi-modal detection framework enabled clear identification of distinct M1-like and M2-like macrophages in horses.
  • These tools revealed differential macrophage activation profiles depending on the infectious pathogen, highlighting their biological relevance.
  • This validated detection system constitutes a foundational resource to standardize equine macrophage research and facilitate improved immunological investigations in veterinary medicine.

Cite This Article

APA
Chen K, Du C, Duan Y, Guo K, Liu D, Wang F, Wang X, Wen Y. (2026). Systematic establishment of approaches to the detection of equine macrophage polarization and their application in pathogenic infection. Microbiol Spectr, 14(8), e0291625. https://doi.org/10.1128/spectrum.02916-25

Publication

Microbiology spectrum
ISSN: 2165-0497
NlmUniqueID: 101634614
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 14
Issue: 8
Pages: e0291625
PII: e02916-25

Researcher Affiliations

Chen, Kewei
  • Key Laboratory for Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment of Animal Diseases of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, China.
  • State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China.
Du, Cheng
  • State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China.
Duan, Yingyi
  • State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China.
Guo, Kui
  • State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China.
Liu, Diqiu
  • State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China.
Wang, Fengxue
  • Key Laboratory for Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment of Animal Diseases of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, China.
Wang, Xiaojun
  • State Key Laboratory of Animal Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, China.
Wen, Yongjun
  • Key Laboratory for Clinical Diagnosis and Treatment of Animal Diseases of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, Inner Mongolia Agricultural University, Hohhot, China.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Horses
  • Macrophages / immunology
  • Macrophages / virology
  • Antigens, CD / immunology
  • Antigens, CD / genetics
  • Antibodies, Monoclonal / immunology
  • Horse Diseases / immunology
  • Horse Diseases / virology
  • Flow Cytometry
  • CD163 Antigen
  • Receptors, Cell Surface / immunology
  • Receptors, Cell Surface / genetics
  • Infectious Anemia Virus, Equine / immunology
  • B7-1 Antigen / immunology
  • B7-1 Antigen / genetics
  • Herpesvirus 1, Equid / immunology
  • Host-Pathogen Interactions
  • Macrophage Activation
  • Antigens, Differentiation, Myelomonocytic / immunology
  • Biomarkers

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 51 references
  1. Bain CC, Schridde A. Origin, differentiation, and function of intestinal macrophages. Front Immunol 9:2733.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02733pmc: PMC6277706pubmed: 30538701google scholar: lookup
  2. Epelman S, Lavine KJ, Randolph GJ. Origin and functions of tissue macrophages. Immunity 41:21–35.
    doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2014.06.013pmc: PMC4470379pubmed: 25035951google scholar: lookup
  3. Cline TD, Beck D, Bianchini E. Influenza virus replication in macrophages: balancing protection and pathogenesis. J Gen Virol 98:2401–2412.
    doi: 10.1099/jgv.0.000922pmc: PMC5725990pubmed: 28884667google scholar: lookup
  4. Locati M, Curtale G, Mantovani A. Diversity, mechanisms, and significance of macrophage plasticity. Annu Rev Pathol 15:123–147.
    doi: 10.1146/annurev-pathmechdis-012418-012718pmc: PMC7176483pubmed: 31530089google scholar: lookup
  5. Sharifiaghdam M, Shaabani E, Faridi-Majidi R, De Smedt SC, Braeckmans K, Fraire JC. Macrophages as a therapeutic target to promote diabetic wound healing. Mol Ther 30:2891–2908.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2022.07.016pmc: PMC9482022pubmed: 35918892google scholar: lookup
  6. Orecchioni M, Ghosheh Y, Pramod AB, Ley K. Macrophage polarization: different gene signatures in M1(LPS+) vs. Classically and M2(LPS-) vs. Alternatively activated macrophages. Front Immunol 10:1084.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01084pmc: PMC6543837pubmed: 31178859google scholar: lookup
  7. Cutolo M, Campitiello R, Gotelli E, Soldano S. The Role of M1/M2 macrophage polarization in rheumatoid arthritis synovitis. Front Immunol 13:867260.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.867260pmc: PMC9161083pubmed: 35663975google scholar: lookup
  8. O’Shea JJ, Murray PJ. Cytokine signaling modules in inflammatory responses. Immunity 28:477–487.
    doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2008.03.002pmc: PMC2782488pubmed: 18400190google scholar: lookup
  9. Mills CD, Kincaid K, Alt JM, Heilman MJ, Hill AM. M-1/M-2 macrophages and the Th1/Th2 paradigm. J Immunol 164:6166–6173.
    doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.164.12.6166pubmed: 10843666google scholar: lookup
  10. Menarim BC, Gillis KH, Oliver A, Ngo Y, Werre SR, Barrett SH, Rodgerson DH, Dahlgren LA. Macrophage activation in the synovium of healthy and osteoarthritic equine joints. Front Vet Sci 7:568756.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.568756pmc: PMC7726135pubmed: 33324696google scholar: lookup
  11. Ka MB, Daumas A, Textoris J, Mege JL. Phenotypic diversity and emerging new tools to study macrophage activation in bacterial infectious diseases. Front Immunol 5:500.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00500pmc: PMC4193331pubmed: 25346736google scholar: lookup
  12. Labonte AC, Tosello-Trampont AC, Hahn YS. The role of macrophage polarization in infectious and inflammatory diseases. Mol Cells 37:275–285.
    doi: 10.14348/molcells.2014.2374pmc: PMC4012075pubmed: 24625576google scholar: lookup
  13. Tuo T, Chen D, Wang L, Zhang Y, Zhou L, Ge X, Han J, Guo X, Yang H. Infection of PRRSV inhibits CSFV C-strain replication by inducing macrophages polarization to M1. Vet Microbiol 289:109957.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2023.109957pubmed: 38160508google scholar: lookup
  14. Saha B, Kodys K, Szabo G. Hepatitis C virus-induced monocyte differentiation into polarized M2 macrophages promotes stellate cell activation via TGF-β. Cell Mol Gastroenterol Hepatol 2:302–316.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jcmgh.2015.12.005pmc: PMC5042356pubmed: 28090562google scholar: lookup
  15. Sun H, Sun Y, Pu J, Zhang Y, Zhu Q, Li J, Gu J, Chang KC, Liu J. Comparative virus replication and host innate responses in human cells infected with three prevalent clades (2.3.4, 2.3.2, and 7) of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 viruses. J Virol 88:725–729.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.02510-13pmc: PMC3911739pubmed: 24131718google scholar: lookup
  16. Knoll R, Schultze JL, Schulte-Schrepping J. Monocytes and macrophages in COVID-19. Front Immunol 12:720109.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.720109pmc: PMC8335157pubmed: 34367190google scholar: lookup
  17. Cui L, Ma Y, Liang Y, Zhang Y, Chen Z, Wang Z, Wu H, Li X, Xu L, Liu S, Li H. Polarization of avian macrophages upon avian flavivirus infection. Vet Microbiol 256:109044.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2021.109044pubmed: 33836389google scholar: lookup
  18. Zhang W, Fu Z, Yin H, Han Q, Fan W, Wang F, Shang Y. Macrophage polarization modulated by porcine circovirus type 2 facilitates bacterial coinfection. Front Immunol 12:688294.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.688294pmc: PMC8355693pubmed: 34394082google scholar: lookup
  19. Sebastian R, Sravanthi M, Umapathi V, Krishnaswamy N, Priyanka M, Dechamma HJ, Ganesh K, Basagoudanavar SH, Sanyal A, Reddy GR. Foot and mouth disease virus undergoes non-progressive replication in mice peritoneal macrophages and induces M1 polarization. Virus Res 281:197906.
    doi: 10.1016/j.virusres.2020.197906pmc: PMC7114663pubmed: 32109526google scholar: lookup
  20. Jaslow SL, Gibbs KD, Fricke WF, Wang L, Pittman KJ, Mammel MK, Thaden JT, Fowler VG, Hammer GE, Elfenbein JR, Ko DC. activation of STAT3 signaling by SarA effector promotes intracellular replication and production of IL-10. Cell Rep 23:3525–3536.
    doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.05.072pmc: PMC6314477pubmed: 29924996google scholar: lookup
  21. Karagianni AE, Kapetanovic R, Summers KM, McGorum BC, Hume DA, Pirie RS. Comparative transcriptome analysis of equine alveolar macrophages. Equine Vet J 49:375–382.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12584pmc: PMC5412682pubmed: 27096353google scholar: lookup
  22. Karagianni AE, Lisowski ZM, Hume DA, Scott Pirie R. The equine mononuclear phagocyte system: the relevance of the horse as a model for understanding human innate immunity. Equine Vet J 53:231–249.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13341pubmed: 32881079google scholar: lookup
  23. Wilson ME, McCandless EE, Olszewski MA, Robinson NE. Alveolar macrophage phenotypes in severe equine asthma. Vet J 256:105436.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2020.105436pmc: PMC7768773pubmed: 32113585google scholar: lookup
  24. Dakin SG, Werling D, Hibbert A, Abayasekara DRE, Young NJ, Smith RKW, Dudhia J. Macrophage sub-populations and the lipoxin A4 receptor implicate active inflammation during equine tendon repair. PLoS One 7:e32333.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032333pmc: PMC3284560pubmed: 22384219google scholar: lookup
  25. Cao X, van den Hil FE, Mummery CL, Orlova VV. Generation and functional characterization of monocytes and macrophages derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells. CP Stem Cell Biology 52:e108.
    doi: 10.1002/cpsc.108google scholar: lookup
  26. Zhou Y, Yoshida S, Kubo Y, Yoshimura T, Kobayashi Y, Nakama T, Yamaguchi M, Ishikawa K, Oshima Y, Ishibashi T. Different distributions of M1 and M2 macrophages in a mouse model of laser-induced choroidal neovascularization. Mol Med Rep 15:3949–3956.
    doi: 10.3892/mmr.2017.6491pmc: PMC5436148pubmed: 28440413google scholar: lookup
  27. Greenwald RJ, Freeman GJ, Sharpe AH. The B7 family revisited. Annu Rev Immunol 23:515–548.
    doi: 10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115611pubmed: 15771580google scholar: lookup
  28. Crespo H, Bertolotti L, Juganaru M, Glaria I, de Andrés D, Amorena B, Rosati S, Reina R. Small ruminant macrophage polarization may play a pivotal role on lentiviral infection. Vet Res 44:83.
    doi: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-83pmc: PMC3850683pubmed: 24070317google scholar: lookup
  29. Trentin L, Zambello R, Sancetta R, Facco M, Cerutti A, Perin A, Siviero M, Basso U, Bortolin M, Adami F, Agostini C, Semenzato G. B lymphocytes from patients with chronic lymphoproliferative disorders are equipped with different costimulatory molecules. Cancer Res 57:4940–4947.
    pubmed: 9354461
  30. Kim JK, Fahad AM, Shanmukhappa K, Kapil S. Defining the cellular target(s) of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus blocking monoclonal antibody 7G10. J Virol 80:689–696.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.80.2.689-696.2006pmc: PMC1346842pubmed: 16378972google scholar: lookup
  31. Law SK, Micklem KJ, Shaw JM, Zhang XP, Dong Y, Willis AC, Mason DY. A new macrophage differentiation antigen which is a member of the scavenger receptor superfamily.. Eur J Immunol 23:2320–2325.
    doi: 10.1002/eji.1830230940pubmed: 8370408google scholar: lookup
  32. Oh D, Xie J, Vanderheijden N, Nauwynck HJ. Isolation and characterization of a new population of nasal surface macrophages and their susceptibility to PRRSV-1 subtype 1 (LV) and subtype 3 (Lena).. Vet Res 51:21.
    doi: 10.1186/s13567-020-00751-7pmc: PMC7038536pubmed: 32093748google scholar: lookup
  33. Sánchez C, Doménech N, Vázquez J, Alonso F, Ezquerra A, Domínguez J. The porcine 2A10 antigen is homologous to human CD163 and related to macrophage differentiation.. J Immunol 162:5230–5237.
    pubmed: 10227997
  34. Watson CJ, Glezeva N, Horgan S, Gallagher J, Phelan D, McDonald K, Tolan M, Baugh J, Collier P, Ledwidge M. Atrial tissue pro-fibrotic M2 macrophage marker CD163+, gene expression of procollagen and B-type natriuretic peptide.. J Am Heart Assoc 9:e013416.
    doi: 10.1161/JAHA.119.013416pmc: PMC7428985pubmed: 32431194google scholar: lookup
  35. Yamanishi S, Nagashima H, Tanaka K, Uno T, Ikeuchi Y, Iwahashi H, Hashiguchi M, Horii S, Itoh T, Muragaki Y, Sasayama T. Association of preoperative seizures with reduced expression of soluble CD163, an M2 macrophage marker, in the cerebrospinal fluid in isocitrate dehydrogenase wild-type glioblastoma.. J Neurooncol 171:95–103.
    doi: 10.1007/s11060-024-04837-6pubmed: 39377994google scholar: lookup
  36. McWhorter FY, Wang T, Nguyen P, Chung T, Liu WF. Modulation of macrophage phenotype by cell shape.. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 110:17253–17258.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.1308887110pmc: PMC3808615pubmed: 24101477google scholar: lookup
  37. Hourani T, Perez-Gonzalez A, Khoshmanesh K, Luwor R, Achuthan AA, Baratchi S, O’Brien-Simpson NM, Al-Hourani A. Label-free macrophage phenotype classification using machine learning methods.. Sci Rep 13:5202.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-32158-7pmc: PMC10061362pubmed: 36997576google scholar: lookup
  38. Pasqualini R, Arap W. Hybridoma-free generation of monoclonal antibodies.. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101:257–259.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.0305834101pmc: PMC314172pubmed: 14688405google scholar: lookup
  39. Beyer M, Mallmann MR, Xue J, Staratschek-Jox A, Vorholt D, Krebs W, Sommer D, Sander J, Mertens C, Nino-Castro A, Schmidt SV, Schultze JL. High-resolution transcriptome of human macrophages.. PLoS One 7:e45466.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0045466pmc: PMC3448669pubmed: 23029029google scholar: lookup
  40. Tarique AA, Logan J, Thomas E, Holt PG, Sly PD, Fantino E. Phenotypic, functional, and plasticity features of classical and alternatively activated human macrophages.. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 53:676–688.
    doi: 10.1165/rcmb.2015-0012OCpubmed: 25870903google scholar: lookup
  41. da Silva TB, Rendra E, David CAW, Bieback K, Cross MJ, Wilm B, Liptrott NJ, Murray P. Umbilical cord mesenchymal stromal cell-derived extracellular vesicles lack the potency to immunomodulate human monocyte-derived macrophages .. Biomed Pharmacother 167:115624.
    doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115624pubmed: 37783151google scholar: lookup
  42. Piatnitskaia S, Rafikova G, Bilyalov A, Chugunov S, Akhatov I, Pavlov V, Kzhyshkowska J. Modelling of macrophage responses to biomaterials : state-of-the-art and the need for the improvement.. Front Immunol 15:1349461.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1349461pmc: PMC11002093pubmed: 38596667google scholar: lookup
  43. Costantini A, Viola N, Berretta A, Galeazzi R, Matacchione G, Sabbatinelli J, Storci G, De Matteis S, Butini L, Rippo MR, Procopio AD, Caraceni D, Antonicelli R, Olivieri F, Bonafè M. Age-related M1/M2 phenotype changes in circulating monocytes from healthy/unhealthy individuals.. Aging (Albany NY) 10:1268–1280.
    doi: 10.18632/aging.101465pmc: PMC6046240pubmed: 29885276google scholar: lookup
  44. Salei N, Rambichler S, Salvermoser J, Papaioannou NE, Schuchert R, Pakalniškytė D, Li N, Marschner JA, Lichtnekert J, Stremmel C, Cernilogar FM, Salvermoser M, Walzog B, Straub T, Schotta G, Anders H-J, Schulz C, Schraml BU. The kidney contains ontogenetically distinct dendritic cell and macrophage subtypes throughout development that differ in their inflammatory Properties.. J Am Soc Nephrol 31:257–278.
    doi: 10.1681/ASN.2019040419pmc: PMC7003301pubmed: 31932472google scholar: lookup
  45. Du C, Duan Y, Wang XF, Lin Y, Na L, Wang X, Chen K, Wang X. Attenuation of equine lentivirus alters mitochondrial protein expression profile from inflammation to apoptosis.. J Virol 93:e00653-19.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.00653-19pmc: PMC6803291pubmed: 31391270google scholar: lookup
  46. Codo AC, Davanzo GG, Monteiro L de B, de Souza GF, Muraro SP, Virgilio-da-Silva JV, Prodonoff JS, Carregari VC, de Biagi Junior CAO, Crunfli F. Elevated glucose levels favor SARS-CoV-2 infection and monocyte response through a HIF-1α/glycolysis-dependent axis. Cell Metab 32:437–446.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2020.07.007pmc: PMC7367032pubmed: 32697943google scholar: lookup
  47. Min CK, Shakya AK, Lee BJ, Streblow DN, Caposio P, Yurochko AD. The differentiation of human cytomegalovirus infected-monocytes is required for viral replication. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 10:368.
    doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00368pmc: PMC7411144pubmed: 32850474google scholar: lookup
  48. Viola A, Munari F, Sánchez-Rodríguez R, Scolaro T, Castegna A. The metabolic signature of macrophage responses. Front Immunol 10:1462.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.01462pmc: PMC6618143pubmed: 31333642google scholar: lookup
  49. Lim WS, Edwards JF, Boyd NK, Payne SL, Ball JM. Simultaneous quantitation of equine cytokine mRNAs using a multi-probe ribonuclease protection assay. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 91:45–51.
    doi: 10.1016/s0165-2427(02)00263-5pubmed: 12507849google scholar: lookup
  50. Muhsin A, Rangel R, Vien L, Bover L. Monoclonal antibodies generation: updates and protocols on hybridoma technology. Methods Mol Biol 2435:73–93.
    doi: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2014-4_6pubmed: 34993940google scholar: lookup
  51. Rao X, Huang X, Zhou Z, Lin X. An improvement of the 2ˆ(-delta delta CT) method for quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction data analysis. Biostat Bioinforma Biomath 3:71–85.
    pmc: PMC4280562pubmed: 25558171

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 106,497 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.