FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Journal of equine veterinary science2018; 64; 17-26; doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.01.011

The Effects of Equine Assisted Therapy on Plasma Cortisol and Oxytocin Concentrations and Heart Rate Variability in Horses and Measures of Symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Veterans.

Abstract: With the increase in the number of horses being used in Equine-Assisted Activities and Therapies (EAAT) programs and with the increasing concern for animal welfare, it is important to understand the impact of such interventions on the stress level and quality of life for the horses involved. The purpose of the present pilot study was to test the hypothesis that participation in EAAT would acutely alter physiological markers of stress and well-being, including plasma cortisol, plasma oxytocin, and heart rate variability (HRV), in horses and that symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) would be reduced after five sessions of EAAT in veterans who had previously been diagnosed with PTSD. Nine healthy geldings, of various breeds, ages 10-23 years, conditioned and experienced as therapeutic riding horses, were selected to participate in the study. Of these, seven were selected at random to wear electrocardiogram units, and all nine were used for blood sampling to measure plasma cortisol and oxytocin. Each horse was randomly assigned to partner with a veteran for five EAAT sessions, 1 hour in duration. A standing control was conducted on a later date on which horses did not participate in EAAT. Measurement after 5 days of EAAT was conducted immediately after the end of the last session on day 5 using the Brief Symptom Inventory and the PCL-5 (a 20 item self-report measure of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - 5 for symptoms of PTSD). Two way repeated measure analysis of variance showed no significant day by time interactions for plasma cortisol (P = .821) or oxytocin (P = .861). There was a significant day by time interaction (P = .006) for heart rate (HR); where on day 1, HR (bpm) was significantly lower during the interaction with the veterans. There were no significant differences in HRV variables. Posttherapy measures in PTSD symptoms in veterans were significantly reduced except for interpersonal sensitivity (P = .08) and phobic anxiety (P = .17). There was an effect of EAAT on HR which was significantly reduced on day 2 during the actual EAAT session. Equine-Assisted Activities and Therapies had no effect on respiration rate and systolic or diastolic blood pressure in veterans involved in five sessions of EAAT, lasting 60 minutes in duration over the course of 5 days. Stress levels, as demonstrated by plasma cortisol concentrations and HRV, did not change in horses involved in EAAT sessions with veterans who had been previously diagnosed with PTSD. Furthermore, the horses used in this study did not demonstrate increased levels of well-being as demonstrated by the lack of change in plasma oxytocin concentrations after EAAT sessions. Symptoms of PTSD did change significantly in the veterans who participated in this study.
Copyright © 2018 Rutgers_The State University of New Jersey. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2018-02-12 PubMed ID: 30973147DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.01.011Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The article explores the impact of Equine-Assisted Activities and Therapies (EAAT) on physiological markers of stress and well-being in horses and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in veterans. The findings suggest that whileEquine-Assisted Activities and Therapies had no significant effect on stress levels and well-being in the horses, they significantly reduced symptoms of PTSD in the veterans.

Research Methodology

  • The researchers of this study conducted a pilot study involving nine healthy geldings, aged 10-23 years, chosen for their experience and conditioning as therapeutic riding horses.
  • Each horse was randomly assigned to work with a veteran who had been previously diagnosed with PTSD for five one-hour EAAT sessions.
  • During the study, measurements were taken of the horses’ plasma cortisol and oxytocin levels, as well as heart rate variability (HRV).
  • Seven of the horses were chosen at random to wear electrocardiogram units during these sessions.
  • For the veterans, symptoms of PTSD were measured using the Brief Symptom Inventory and the PCL-5 (a 20-item self-report measure specifically designed to assess symptoms of PTSD per the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders – 5).
  • A separate control study was also conducted where the horses did not participate in EAAT.

Results

  • According to the study, there were no significant changes in the levels of plasma cortisol (a stress hormone) or oxytocin (a hormone associated with social bonding and well-being) in the horses after participating in the EAAT sessions.
  • The horses’ heart rate was lower on the first day of interaction with the veterans, but there were no significant differences in HRV measurements.
  • These results suggest that participation in EAAT did not produce a significant physiological stress response in the therapy horses, nor did it significantly enhance their overall well-being.
  • For the veterans, symptoms of PTSD (aside from interpersonal sensitivity and phobic anxiety) were significantly reduced after the therapy sessions. This points to the beneficial effects of EAAT for individuals dealing with PTSD.
  • However, it’s important to note that the therapy had no effect on respiration rate and systolic or diastolic blood pressure in the veterans.

The research suggests that while Equine-Assisted Activities and Therapies may have beneficial effects on the mental health of human participants, they may not exert a significant impact on the physiological markers of well-being and stress response in the therapy horses involved. This highlights the importance of continuing research in the field to ensure the welfare of horses used in therapeutic settings.

Cite This Article

APA
Malinowski K, Yee C, Tevlin JM, Birks EK, Durando MM, Pournajafi-Nazarloo H, Cavaiola AA, McKeever KH. (2018). The Effects of Equine Assisted Therapy on Plasma Cortisol and Oxytocin Concentrations and Heart Rate Variability in Horses and Measures of Symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Veterans. J Equine Vet Sci, 64, 17-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2018.01.011

Publication

Journal of equine veterinary science
ISSN: 0737-0806
NlmUniqueID: 8216840
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 64
Pages: 17-26
PII: S0737-0806(17)30776-1

Researcher Affiliations

Malinowski, Karyn
  • Rutgers Equine Science Center and the Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ. Electronic address: karynmal@njaes.rutgers.edu.
Yee, Chi
  • Rutgers Equine Science Center and the Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ.
Tevlin, Jenni M
  • Rutgers Equine Science Center and the Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ.
Birks, Eric K
  • Sports Medicine and Imaging, Newark, DE.
Durando, Mary M
  • Sports Medicine and Imaging, Newark, DE.
Pournajafi-Nazarloo, Hossein
  • Sue Carter Lab, Kinsey Institute and Department of Biology, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN.
Cavaiola, Alan A
  • Psychology Department, Monmouth University, West Long Branch, NJ.
McKeever, Kenneth H
  • Rutgers Equine Science Center and the Department of Animal Sciences, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ.

Citations

This article has been cited 28 times.
  1. Marchand WR. Potential Mechanisms of Action and Outcomes of Equine-Assisted Services for Veterans with a History of Trauma: A Narrative Review of the Literature. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2023 Jul 16;20(14).
    doi: 10.3390/ijerph20146377pubmed: 37510609google scholar: lookup
  2. Kapteijn CM, Frippiat T, van Beckhoven C, van Lith HA, Endenburg N, Vermetten E, Rodenburg TB. Measuring heart rate variability using a heart rate monitor in horses (Equus caballus) during groundwork. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:939534.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.939534pubmed: 36483490google scholar: lookup
  3. Ayala MD, Carrillo A, Iniesta P, Ferrer P. Pilot Study of the Influence of Equine Assisted Therapy on Physiological and Behavioral Parameters Related to Welfare of Horses and Patients. Animals (Basel) 2021 Dec 10;11(12).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11123527pubmed: 34944303google scholar: lookup
  4. Kelly KJ, McD￮ LA, Mears K. The Effect of Human-Horse Interactions on Equine Behaviour, Physiology, and Welfare: A Scoping Review. Animals (Basel) 2021 Sep 24;11(10).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11102782pubmed: 34679804google scholar: lookup
  5. Hediger K, Wagner J, Künzi P, Haefeli A, Theis F, Grob C, Pauli E, Gerger H. Effectiveness of animal-assisted interventions for children and adults with post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2021;12(1):1879713.
    doi: 10.1080/20008198.2021.1879713pubmed: 34377357google scholar: lookup
  6. Contalbrigo L, Borgi M, De Santis M, Collacchi B, Tuozzi A, Toson M, Redaelli V, Odore R, Vercelli C, Stefani A, Luzi F, Valle E, Cirulli F. Equine-Assisted Interventions (EAIs) for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD): Behavioural and Physiological Indices of Stress in Domestic Horses (Equus caballus) during Riding Sessions. Animals (Basel) 2021 May 27;11(6).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11061562pubmed: 34071859google scholar: lookup
  7. Marchand WR, Andersen SJ, Smith JE, Hoopes KH, Carlson JK. Equine-Assisted Activities and Therapies for Veterans With Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Current State, Challenges and Future Directions. Chronic Stress (Thousand Oaks) 2021 Jan-Dec;5:2470547021991556.
    doi: 10.1177/2470547021991556pubmed: 33644617google scholar: lookup
  8. Kovács G, van Dijke A, Enders-Slegers MJ. Psychodynamic Based Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy in Adults with Intertwined Personality Problems and Traumatization: A Systematic Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020 Aug 5;17(16).
    doi: 10.3390/ijerph17165661pubmed: 32764468google scholar: lookup
  9. Fine AH, Beck AM, Ng Z. The State of Animal-Assisted Interventions: Addressing the Contemporary Issues that will Shape the Future. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2019 Oct 18;16(20).
    doi: 10.3390/ijerph16203997pubmed: 31635430google scholar: lookup
  10. Duerr R, Gorny MK. V2-Specific Antibodies in HIV-1 Vaccine Research and Natural Infection: Controllers or Surrogate Markers. Animals (Basel) 2019 Aug 3;9(8).
    doi: 10.3390/ani9080526pubmed: 31382576google scholar: lookup
  11. Mendonça T, Bienboire-Frosini C, Menuge F, Leclercq J, Lafont-Lecuelle C, Arroub S, Pageat P. The Impact of Equine-Assisted Therapy on Equine Behavioral and Physiological Responses. Animals (Basel) 2019 Jul 1;9(7).
    doi: 10.3390/ani9070409pubmed: 31266217google scholar: lookup
  12. Mendonça T, Bienboire-Frosini C, Kowalczyk I, Leclercq J, Arroub S, Pageat P. Equine Activities Influence Horses' Responses to Different Stimuli: Could This Have an Impact on Equine Welfare?. Animals (Basel) 2019 May 29;9(6).
    doi: 10.3390/ani9060290pubmed: 31146422google scholar: lookup
  13. Held A, Hubbard K, Nazarenko E, Marchand W. A Pilot Observational Study in Ohio, USA of the Healing of Our Veterans Equine Services Intensive Intervention for Veterans with Trauma Histories. Healthcare (Basel) 2025 Nov 28;13(23).
    doi: 10.3390/healthcare13233111pubmed: 41373328google scholar: lookup
  14. Kowalski H, Van Buiten H, Hopkins P, Baldwin C, Nazarenko E, Marchand WR. A Multi-Site Observational Evaluation of the Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association Model of Equine-Assisted Psychotherapy for Veteran Trauma Survivors. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2025 Oct 13;22(10).
    doi: 10.3390/ijerph22101557pubmed: 41154961google scholar: lookup
  15. Friend MM, Nicodemus MC, Cavinder CA, Lemley CO, Prince P, Holtcamp K, Elam R. Cognitive and physiological impacts of psychotherapy incorporating human-equine interactions during substance withdrawal: A scoping review. J Equine Rehabil 2025;3.
    doi: 10.1016/j.eqre.2025.100022pubmed: 41054627google scholar: lookup
  16. Geibel MA, Kildal D, Geibel AM, Ott S. Hippotherapy in the Treatment of CMD and Bruxism in Dentistry. Animals (Basel) 2025 Sep 3;15(17).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15172587pubmed: 40941382google scholar: lookup
  17. Song Y, Jung Y, Choi Y, Yoon M. Effects of canine-assisted intervention on stress and depression in humans. J Anim Sci Technol 2025 Jul;67(4):719-736.
    doi: 10.5187/jast.2025.e5pubmed: 40874008google scholar: lookup
  18. Kapteijn C, Reinders N, Hueting M, Van Huffelen RA, Vermetten E, Rodenburg B, Endenburg N. Are Equine Assisted Interactions (EAI) a Dark Horse Bet? A Systematic Review on Measuring the Psychological and Physiological Effects of EAI on PTSD, Anxiety and/or Mood Disorders. Psychiatry Clin Psychopharmacol 2025 Aug 11;35(Suppl 1):S90-S112.
    doi: 10.5152/pcp.2025.24958pubmed: 40865011google scholar: lookup
  19. Giuliano VO, Sacchettino L, Rusu AS, Ciccarelli D, Gazzano V, de Cesare M, Visone M, Mizzoni V, Napolitano F, d'Angelo D. Well-Being Indicators in Autistic Children and Therapy Dogs During a Group Intervention: A Pilot Study. Animals (Basel) 2025 Jul 10;15(14).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15142032pubmed: 40723495google scholar: lookup
  20. Jung Y, Yoon M. The Effects of Human-Horse Interactions on Oxytocin and Cortisol Levels in Humans and Horses. Animals (Basel) 2025 Mar 21;15(7).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15070905pubmed: 40218299google scholar: lookup
  21. Rankins EM, Faremi BE, Hartmann K, Quinn A, Posada-Quintero HF, McKeever KH, Malinowski K. Heart rate variability responses of horses and veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder to ground-based adaptive horsemanship lessons: a pilot study. Transl Anim Sci 2025;9:txaf019.
    doi: 10.1093/tas/txaf019pubmed: 40124971google scholar: lookup
  22. Provan M, Ahmed Z, Stevens AR, Sardeli AV. Are equine-assisted services beneficial for military veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder? A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry 2024 Aug 1;24(1):544.
    doi: 10.1186/s12888-024-05984-wpubmed: 39085783google scholar: lookup
  23. den Boer JC, Klip H, Blonk A, Lenselink M, Kaijdoe SPT, Tielkes M, van Zandbeek A, Bres G, Herinx M, Staal WG, Rommelse N. Study Protocol: Pegasus: psychotherapy incorporating horses for 'therapy-resistant' adolescents with autism spectrum disorders, a study with series of randomised, baseline controlled n-of-1 trials. BMC Psychiatry 2024 Jul 10;24(1):499.
    doi: 10.1186/s12888-024-05879-wpubmed: 38987737google scholar: lookup
  24. Rankins EM, Quinn A, McKeever KH, Malinowski K. Ground-based adaptive horsemanship lessons for veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder: a randomized controlled pilot study. Front Psychiatry 2024;15:1390212.
    doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1390212pubmed: 38863605google scholar: lookup
  25. Potier JF, Louzier V. Evaluation of stress markers in horses during hippotherapy sessions in comparison to being ridden by beginners. Anim Welf 2023;32:e10.
    doi: 10.1017/awf.2023.6pubmed: 38487430google scholar: lookup
  26. Müller-Klein A, Braun MN, Ferreira de Sá DS, Michael T, Link-Dorner U, Lass-Hennemann J. A Relaxed Horse-A Relaxed Client? An Experimental Investigation of the Effects of Therapy Horses' Stress on Clients' Stress, Mood, and Anxiety. Animals (Basel) 2024 Feb 13;14(4).
    doi: 10.3390/ani14040604pubmed: 38396572google scholar: lookup
  27. Rigby BR. Characterizing stress during animal interaction: a focus on the human endocrine response during equine-assisted services. Front Vet Sci 2023;10:1303354.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1303354pubmed: 38188717google scholar: lookup
  28. Li J, Sánchez-García R. Equine-assisted interventions for veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder: a systematic review. Front Psychiatry 2023;14:1277338.
    doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1277338pubmed: 38025432google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,850 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.