FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Genetics / The molecular genetics of red and green color vision in mamm...
Genetics1999; 153(2); 919-932; doi: 10.1093/genetics/153.2.919

The molecular genetics of red and green color vision in mammals.

Abstract: To elucidate the molecular mechanisms of red-green color vision in mammals, we have cloned and sequenced the red and green opsin cDNAs of cat (Felis catus), horse (Equus caballus), gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and guinea pig (Cavia porcellus). These opsins were expressed in COS1 cells and reconstituted with 11-cis-retinal. The purified visual pigments of the cat, horse, squirrel, deer, and guinea pig have lambdamax values at 553, 545, 532, 531, and 516 nm, respectively, which are precise to within +/-1 nm. We also regenerated the "true" red pigment of goldfish (Carassius auratus), which has a lambdamax value at 559 +/- 4 nm. Multiple linear regression analyses show that S180A, H197Y, Y277F, T285A, and A308S shift the lambdamax values of the red and green pigments in mammals toward blue by 7, 28, 7, 15, and 16 nm, respectively, and the reverse amino acid changes toward red by the same extents. The additive effects of these amino acid changes fully explain the red-green color vision in a wide range of mammalian species, goldfish, American chameleon (Anolis carolinensis), and pigeon (Columba livia).
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 1999-10-08 PubMed ID: 10511567PubMed Central: PMC1460773DOI: 10.1093/genetics/153.2.919Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • U.S. Gov't
  • P.H.S.

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research article revolves around the investigation of the molecular mechanisms that control red-green color perception in mammals. The opsin genes, responsible for color vision, from various mammals were cloned, sequenced, and expressed for experimental purpose. The resulted visual pigments produced in these mammals were measured. Significant amino acid changes were identified that influence the shift in color perception towards red or blue, thereby explaining the red-green color vision in various mammalian species.

Molecular Mechanism Review

  • The study focused on understanding the molecular genetics responsible for red-green color vision in mammals. Red-green color perception in mammalian eyes is managed by special light-sensitive cells in the retina that contain pigments called opsins, which respond to different light wavelengths.
  • The researchers cloned and sequenced the cDNAs (complementary DNAs) of red and green opsins from various mammals (cat, horse, squirrel, deer, and guinea pig).
  • These opsin cDNAs were expressed in COS1 cells (a cell line used in molecular biology) and combined with a specific type of retinal, which is a component of the visual pigment in the eye.

Visual Pigments and Color Vision

  • The study measured the wavelengths at which the visual pigments (from the aforementioned animals) absorbed the most light, also known as the lambdamax values, and found them to be accurate to within +/-1 nm.
  • In addition, the researchers regenerated the “true” red pigment from the goldfish to provide a contrasting perspective.

Amino Acid Changes Influence Color Perception

  • By using multiple linear regression analyses, the researchers identified five specific changes in the amino acid sequences that drastically shift the lambdamax values of the red and green pigments in the mammals under study.
  • These changes cause shifts towards either blue (with amino acids S180A, H197Y, Y277F, T285A, and A308S) or red (with reverse amino acid sequences) by fixed extents.
  • The additive effects of these amino acid changes provide a comprehensive explanation about the variety of red-green color vision across different mammalian species, emphasizing their significance in the evolution and diversity of color vision among mammals.

Cite This Article

APA
Yokoyama S, Radlwimmer FB. (1999). The molecular genetics of red and green color vision in mammals. Genetics, 153(2), 919-932. https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/153.2.919

Publication

Genetics
ISSN: 0016-6731
NlmUniqueID: 0374636
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 153
Issue: 2
Pages: 919-932

Researcher Affiliations

Yokoyama, S
  • Department of Biology, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York 13244, USA. syokoyam@mailbox.syr.edu
Radlwimmer, F B

    MeSH Terms

    • Amino Acid Sequence
    • Animals
    • Base Sequence
    • COS Cells
    • Cats
    • Color Perception / genetics
    • DNA Primers
    • Deer
    • Dolphins
    • Evolution, Molecular
    • Goats
    • Guinea Pigs
    • Horses
    • Humans
    • Mammals / genetics
    • Mammals / physiology
    • Mice
    • Molecular Sequence Data
    • Phylogeny
    • Rabbits
    • Rats
    • Recombinant Proteins / biosynthesis
    • Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
    • Rod Opsins / biosynthesis
    • Rod Opsins / chemistry
    • Rod Opsins / genetics
    • Sciuridae
    • Sequence Alignment
    • Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
    • Transfection

    Grant Funding

    • GM-42379 / NIGMS NIH HHS

    References

    This article includes 41 references
    1. Chakraborty R, Nei M. Dynamics of gene differentiation between incompletely isolated populations of unequal sizes.. Theor Popul Biol 1974 Jun;5(3):460-9.
      pubmed: 4460259doi: 10.1016/0040-5809(74)90064-1google scholar: lookup
    2. Merbs SL, Nathans J. Role of hydroxyl-bearing amino acids in differentially tuning the absorption spectra of the human red and green cone pigments.. Photochem Photobiol 1993 Nov;58(5):706-10.
      pubmed: 8284327doi: 10.1111/j.1751-1097.1993.tb04956.xgoogle scholar: lookup
    3. Neitz J, Jacobs GH. Electroretinogram measurements of cone spectral sensitivity in dichromatic monkeys.. J Opt Soc Am A 1984 Dec;1(12):1175-80.
      pubmed: 6520635doi: 10.1364/josaa.1.001175google scholar: lookup
    4. Jacobs GH, Neitz J. Inheritance of color vision in a New World monkey (Saimiri sciureus).. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1987 Apr;84(8):2545-9.
      pubmed: 3470811doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.8.2545google scholar: lookup
    5. Chomczynski P, Sacchi N. Single-step method of RNA isolation by acid guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform extraction.. Anal Biochem 1987 Apr;162(1):156-9.
      pubmed: 2440339doi: 10.1006/abio.1987.9999google scholar: lookup
    6. Jacobs GH, Neitz J. Polymorphism of the middle wavelength cone in two species of South American monkey: Cebus apella and Callicebus moloch.. Vision Res 1987;27(8):1263-8.
      pubmed: 3424673doi: 10.1016/0042-6989(87)90202-1google scholar: lookup
    7. Saitou N, Nei M. The neighbor-joining method: a new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees.. Mol Biol Evol 1987 Jul;4(4):406-25.
      pubmed: 3447015doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040454google scholar: lookup
    8. Jacobs GH, Neitz J, Crognale M. Color vision polymorphism and its photopigment basis in a callitrichid monkey (Saguinus fuscicollis).. Vision Res 1987;27(12):2089-100.
      pubmed: 3128920doi: 10.1016/0042-6989(87)90123-4google scholar: lookup
    9. Register EA, Yokoyama R, Yokoyama S. Multiple origins of the green-sensitive opsin genes in fish.. J Mol Evol 1994 Sep;39(3):268-73.
      pubmed: 7932788doi: 10.1007/BF00160150google scholar: lookup
    10. Jacobs GH, Deegan JF 2nd. Spectral sensitivity, photopigments, and color vision in the guinea pig (Cavia porcellus).. Behav Neurosci 1994 Oct;108(5):993-1004.
      pubmed: 7826522doi: 10.1037//0735-7044.108.5.993google scholar: lookup
    11. Yokoyama S, Meany A, Wilkens H, Yokoyama R. Initial mutational steps toward loss of opsin gene function in cavefish.. Mol Biol Evol 1995 Jul;12(4):527-32.
      pubmed: 7659009doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040233google scholar: lookup
    12. Jacobs GH, Neitz M, Deegan JF, Neitz J. Trichromatic colour vision in New World monkeys.. Nature 1996 Jul 11;382(6587):156-8.
      pubmed: 8700203doi: 10.1038/382156a0google scholar: lookup
    13. Hadjeb N, Berkowitz GA. Preparation of T-over-hang vectors with high PCR product cloning efficiency.. Biotechniques 1996 Jan;20(1):20-2.
      pubmed: 8770397doi: 10.2144/96201bm02google scholar: lookup
    14. Cao Y, Okada N, Hasegawa M. Phylogenetic position of guinea pigs revisited.. Mol Biol Evol 1997 Apr;14(4):461-4.
      pubmed: 9100376doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025782google scholar: lookup
    15. Nei M, Zhang J, Yokoyama S. Color vision of ancestral organisms of higher primates.. Mol Biol Evol 1997 Jun;14(6):611-8.
      pubmed: 9190062doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025800google scholar: lookup
    16. Sun H, Macke JP, Nathans J. Mechanisms of spectral tuning in the mouse green cone pigment.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997 Aug 5;94(16):8860-5.
      pubmed: 9238068doi: 10.1073/pnas.94.16.8860google scholar: lookup
    17. Yang Z. PAML: a program package for phylogenetic analysis by maximum likelihood.. Comput Appl Biosci 1997 Oct;13(5):555-6.
      pubmed: 9367129doi: 10.1093/bioinformatics/13.5.555google scholar: lookup
    18. Radlwimmer FB, Yokoyama S. Cloning and expression of the red visual pigment gene of goat (Capra hircus).. Gene 1997 Oct 1;198(1-2):211-5.
      pubmed: 9370283doi: 10.1016/s0378-1119(97)00316-8google scholar: lookup
    19. Kawamura S, Yokoyama S. Functional characterization of visual and nonvisual pigments of American chameleon (Anolis carolinensis).. Vision Res 1998 Jan;38(1):37-44.
      pubmed: 9474373doi: 10.1016/s0042-6989(97)00160-0google scholar: lookup
    20. Yokoyama S, Radlwimmer FB, Kawamura S. Regeneration of ultraviolet pigments of vertebrates.. FEBS Lett 1998 Feb 20;423(2):155-8.
      pubmed: 9512349doi: 10.1016/s0014-5793(98)00086-6google scholar: lookup
    21. Kumar S, Hedges SB. A molecular timescale for vertebrate evolution.. Nature 1998 Apr 30;392(6679):917-20.
      pubmed: 9582070doi: 10.1038/31927google scholar: lookup
    22. Yokoyama S, Radlwimmer FB. The "five-sites" rule and the evolution of red and green color vision in mammals.. Mol Biol Evol 1998 May;15(5):560-7.
      pubmed: 9580985doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a025956google scholar: lookup
    23. Shyue SK, Boissinot S, Schneider H, Sampaio I, Schneider MP, Abee CR, Williams L, Hewett-Emmett D, Sperling HG, Cowing JA, Dulai KS, Hunt DM, Li WH. Molecular genetics of spectral tuning in New World monkey color vision.. J Mol Evol 1998 Jun;46(6):697-702.
      pubmed: 9608052doi: 10.1007/pl00006350google scholar: lookup
    24. Fasick JI, Cronin TW, Hunt DM, Robinson PR. The visual pigments of the bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).. Vis Neurosci 1998 Jul-Aug;15(4):643-51.
      pubmed: 9682867doi: 10.1017/s0952523898154056google scholar: lookup
    25. Jacobs GH, Deegan JF 2nd, Neitz J. Photopigment basis for dichromatic color vision in cows, goats, and sheep.. Vis Neurosci 1998 May-Jun;15(3):581-4.
      pubmed: 9685209doi: 10.1017/s0952523898153154google scholar: lookup
    26. Radlwimmer FB, Yokoyama S. Genetic analyses of the green visual pigments of rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and rat (Rattus norvegicus).. Gene 1998 Sep 18;218(1-2):103-9.
      pubmed: 9751808doi: 10.1016/s0378-1119(98)00359-xgoogle scholar: lookup
    27. Palacios AG, Varela FJ, Srivastava R, Goldsmith TH. Spectral sensitivity of cones in the goldfish, Carassius auratus.. Vision Res 1998 Jul;38(14):2135-46.
      pubmed: 9797974doi: 10.1016/s0042-6989(97)00411-2google scholar: lookup
    28. Hunt DM, Dulai KS, Cowing JA, Julliot C, Mollon JD, Bowmaker JK, Li WH, Hewett-Emmett D. Molecular evolution of trichromacy in primates.. Vision Res 1998 Nov;38(21):3299-306.
      pubmed: 9893841doi: 10.1016/s0042-6989(97)00443-4google scholar: lookup
    29. Khorana HG, Knox BE, Nasi E, Swanson R, Thompson DA. Expression of a bovine rhodopsin gene in Xenopus oocytes: demonstration of light-dependent ionic currents.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1988 Nov;85(21):7917-21.
      pubmed: 3141920doi: 10.1073/pnas.85.21.7917google scholar: lookup
    30. Travis DS, Bowmaker JK, Mollon JD. Polymorphism of visual pigments in a callitrichid monkey.. Vision Res 1988;28(4):481-90.
      pubmed: 3143179doi: 10.1016/0042-6989(88)90170-8google scholar: lookup
    31. Yokoyama R, Yokoyama S. Convergent evolution of the red- and green-like visual pigment genes in fish, Astyanax fasciatus, and human.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1990 Dec;87(23):9315-8.
      pubmed: 2123554doi: 10.1073/pnas.87.23.9315google scholar: lookup
    32. Neitz M, Neitz J, Jacobs GH. Spectral tuning of pigments underlying red-green color vision.. Science 1991 May 17;252(5008):971-4.
      pubmed: 1903559doi: 10.1126/science.1903559google scholar: lookup
    33. Jacobs GH, Neitz J, Deegan JF 2nd. Retinal receptors in rodents maximally sensitive to ultraviolet light.. Nature 1991 Oct 17;353(6345):655-6.
      pubmed: 1922382doi: 10.1038/353655a0google scholar: lookup
    34. Winderickx J, Lindsey DT, Sanocki E, Teller DY, Motulsky AG, Deeb SS. Polymorphism in red photopigment underlies variation in colour matching.. Nature 1992 Apr 2;356(6368):431-3.
      pubmed: 1557123doi: 10.1038/356431a0google scholar: lookup
    35. Tovée MJ, Bowmaker JK, Mollon JD. The relationship between cone pigments and behavioural sensitivity in a New World monkey (Callithrix jacchus jacchus).. Vision Res 1992 May;32(5):867-78.
      pubmed: 1604855doi: 10.1016/0042-6989(92)90029-igoogle scholar: lookup
    36. Jones DT, Taylor WR, Thornton JM. The rapid generation of mutation data matrices from protein sequences.. Comput Appl Biosci 1992 Jun;8(3):275-82.
      pubmed: 1633570doi: 10.1093/bioinformatics/8.3.275google scholar: lookup
    37. Johnson RL, Grant KB, Zankel TC, Boehm MF, Merbs SL, Nathans J, Nakanishi K. Cloning and expression of goldfish opsin sequences.. Biochemistry 1993 Jan 12;32(1):208-14.
      pubmed: 8418840doi: 10.1021/bi00052a027google scholar: lookup
    38. Jacobs GH, Neitz J, Neitz M. Genetic basis of polymorphism in the color vision of platyrrhine monkeys.. Vision Res 1993 Feb;33(3):269-74.
      pubmed: 8447099doi: 10.1016/0042-6989(93)90083-9google scholar: lookup
    39. Guenther E, Zrenner E. The spectral sensitivity of dark- and light-adapted cat retinal ganglion cells.. J Neurosci 1993 Apr;13(4):1543-50.
      pubmed: 8463834doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.13-04-01543.1993google scholar: lookup
    40. Pryde PG, Qureshi F, Hallak M, Kupsky W, Johnson MP, Evans MI. Two consecutive hydrolethalus syndrome-affected pregnancies in a nonconsanguinous black couple: discussion of problems in prenatal differential diagnosis of midline malformation syndromes.. Am J Med Genet 1993 Jun 15;46(5):537-41.
      pubmed: 8322817doi: 10.1002/ajmg.1320460516google scholar: lookup
    41. Mollon JD, Bowmaker JK, Jacobs GH. Variations of colour vision in a New World primate can be explained by polymorphism of retinal photopigments.. Proc R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1984 Sep 22;222(1228):373-99.
      pubmed: 6149558doi: 10.1098/rspb.1984.0071google scholar: lookup

    Citations

    This article has been cited 28 times.
    1. Gai Y, Tian R, Liu F, Mu Y, Shan L, Irwin DM, Liu Y, Xu S, Yang G. Diversified Mammalian Visuasl Adaptations to Bright- or Dim-Light Environments.. Mol Biol Evol 2023 Apr 4;40(4).
      doi: 10.1093/molbev/msad063pubmed: 36929909google scholar: lookup
    2. Hagen JFD, Roberts NS, Johnston RJ Jr. The evolutionary history and spectral tuning of vertebrate visual opsins.. Dev Biol 2023 Jan;493:40-66.
      doi: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2022.10.014pubmed: 36370769google scholar: lookup
    3. Sadier A, Urban DJ, Anthwal N, Howenstine AO, Sinha I, Sears KE. Making a bat: The developmental basis of bat evolution.. Genet Mol Biol 2021;43(1 Suppl 2):e20190146.
      doi: 10.1590/1678-4685-GMB-2019-0146pubmed: 33576369google scholar: lookup
    4. Seiko T, Kishida T, Toyama M, Hariyama T, Okitsu T, Wada A, Toda M, Satta Y, Terai Y. Visual adaptation of opsin genes to the aquatic environment in sea snakes.. BMC Evol Biol 2020 Nov 26;20(1):158.
      doi: 10.1186/s12862-020-01725-1pubmed: 33243140google scholar: lookup
    5. Atilano SR, Kenney MC, Briscoe AD, Jameson KA. A two-step method for identifying photopigment opsin and rhodopsin gene sequences underlying human color vision phenotypes.. Mol Vis 2020;26:158-172.
      pubmed: 32180681
    6. Ogawa Y, Shiraki T, Asano Y, Muto A, Kawakami K, Suzuki Y, Kojima D, Fukada Y. Six6 and Six7 coordinately regulate expression of middle-wavelength opsins in zebrafish.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2019 Mar 5;116(10):4651-4660.
      doi: 10.1073/pnas.1812884116pubmed: 30765521google scholar: lookup
    7. Ishengoma E, Agaba M, Cavener DR. Evolutionary analysis of vision genes identifies potential drivers of visual differences between giraffe and okapi.. PeerJ 2017;5:e3145.
      doi: 10.7717/peerj.3145pubmed: 28396824google scholar: lookup
    8. Cavalieri V, Geraci F, Spinelli G. Diversification of spatiotemporal expression and copy number variation of the echinoid hbox12/pmar1/micro1 multigene family.. PLoS One 2017;12(3):e0174404.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174404pubmed: 28350855google scholar: lookup
    9. Kawamura S. Color vision diversity and significance in primates inferred from genetic and field studies.. Genes Genomics 2016;38:779-791.
      doi: 10.1007/s13258-016-0448-9pubmed: 27594978google scholar: lookup
    10. Melin AD, Kline DW, Hiramatsu C, Caro T. Zebra Stripes through the Eyes of Their Predators, Zebras, and Humans.. PLoS One 2016;11(1):e0145679.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145679pubmed: 26799935google scholar: lookup
    11. Brahmachary M, Guilmatre A, Quilez J, Hasson D, Borel C, Warburton P, Sharp AJ. Digital genotyping of macrosatellites and multicopy genes reveals novel biological functions associated with copy number variation of large tandem repeats.. PLoS Genet 2014 Jun;10(6):e1004418.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004418pubmed: 24945355google scholar: lookup
    12. Matsumoto Y, Hiramatsu C, Matsushita Y, Ozawa N, Ashino R, Nakata M, Kasagi S, Di Fiore A, Schaffner CM, Aureli F, Melin AD, Kawamura S. Evolutionary renovation of L/M opsin polymorphism confers a fruit discrimination advantage to ateline New World monkeys.. Mol Ecol 2014 Apr;23(7):1799-812.
      doi: 10.1111/mec.12703pubmed: 24612406google scholar: lookup
    13. Buzás P, Kóbor P, Petykó Z, Telkes I, Martin PR, Lénárd L. Receptive field properties of color opponent neurons in the cat lateral geniculate nucleus.. J Neurosci 2013 Jan 23;33(4):1451-61.
      doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2844-12.2013pubmed: 23345221google scholar: lookup
    14. Hiwatashi T, Mikami A, Katsumura T, Suryobroto B, Perwitasari-Farajallah D, Malaivijitnond S, Siriaroonrat B, Oota H, Goto S, Kawamura S. Gene conversion and purifying selection shape nucleotide variation in gibbon L/M opsin genes.. BMC Evol Biol 2011 Oct 22;11:312.
      doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-11-312pubmed: 22017819google scholar: lookup
    15. Windsor DJ, Owens GL. The opsin repertoire of Jenynsia onca: a new perspective on gene duplication and divergence in livebearers.. BMC Res Notes 2009 Aug 5;2:159.
      doi: 10.1186/1756-0500-2-159pubmed: 19656397google scholar: lookup
    16. Owens GL, Windsor DJ, Mui J, Taylor JS. A fish eye out of water: ten visual opsins in the four-eyed fish, Anableps anableps.. PLoS One 2009 Jun 24;4(6):e5970.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0005970pubmed: 19551143google scholar: lookup
    17. Zhao H, Rossiter SJ, Teeling EC, Li C, Cotton JA, Zhang S. The evolution of color vision in nocturnal mammals.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009 Jun 2;106(22):8980-5.
      doi: 10.1073/pnas.0813201106pubmed: 19470491google scholar: lookup
    18. Davies WL, Carvalho LS, Tay BH, Brenner S, Hunt DM, Venkatesh B. Into the blue: gene duplication and loss underlie color vision adaptations in a deep-sea chimaera, the elephant shark Callorhinchus milii.. Genome Res 2009 Mar;19(3):415-26.
      doi: 10.1101/gr.084509.108pubmed: 19196633google scholar: lookup
    19. Ward MN, Churcher AM, Dick KJ, Laver CR, Owens GL, Polack MD, Ward PR, Breden F, Taylor JS. The molecular basis of color vision in colorful fish: four long wave-sensitive (LWS) opsins in guppies (Poecilia reticulata) are defined by amino acid substitutions at key functional sites.. BMC Evol Biol 2008 Jul 18;8:210.
      doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-8-210pubmed: 18638376google scholar: lookup
    20. Dean AM, Thornton JW. Mechanistic approaches to the study of evolution: the functional synthesis.. Nat Rev Genet 2007 Sep;8(9):675-88.
      doi: 10.1038/nrg2160pubmed: 17703238google scholar: lookup
    21. Levenson DH, Ponganis PJ, Crognale MA, Deegan JF 2nd, Dizon A, Jacobs GH. Visual pigments of marine carnivores: pinnipeds, polar bear, and sea otter.. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2006 Aug;192(8):833-43.
      doi: 10.1007/s00359-006-0121-xpubmed: 16572322google scholar: lookup
    22. Osorio D, Vorobyev M. Photoreceptor spectral sensitivities in terrestrial animals: adaptations for luminance and colour vision.. Proc Biol Sci 2005 Sep 7;272(1574):1745-52.
      doi: 10.1098/rspb.2005.3156pubmed: 16096084google scholar: lookup
    23. Yokoyama S, Takenaka N, Agnew DW, Shoshani J. Elephants and human color-blind deuteranopes have identical sets of visual pigments.. Genetics 2005 May;170(1):335-44.
      doi: 10.1534/genetics.104.039511pubmed: 15781694google scholar: lookup
    24. Dann SG, Allison WT, Levin DB, Taylor JS, Hawryshyn CW. Salmonid opsin sequences undergo positive selection and indicate an alternate evolutionary relationship in oncorhynchus.. J Mol Evol 2004 Apr;58(4):400-12.
      doi: 10.1007/s00239-003-2562-ypubmed: 15114419google scholar: lookup
    25. Teller DC, Stenkamp RE, Palczewski K. Evolutionary analysis of rhodopsin and cone pigments: connecting the three-dimensional structure with spectral tuning and signal transfer.. FEBS Lett 2003 Nov 27;555(1):151-9.
      doi: 10.1016/s0014-5793(03)01152-9pubmed: 14630336google scholar: lookup
    26. Chinen A, Hamaoka T, Yamada Y, Kawamura S. Gene duplication and spectral diversification of cone visual pigments of zebrafish.. Genetics 2003 Feb;163(2):663-75.
      doi: 10.1093/genetics/163.2.663pubmed: 12618404google scholar: lookup
    27. Yokoyama S, Radlwimmer FB. The molecular genetics and evolution of red and green color vision in vertebrates.. Genetics 2001 Aug;158(4):1697-710.
      doi: 10.1093/genetics/158.4.1697pubmed: 11545071google scholar: lookup
    28. Kawamura S, Blow NS, Yokoyama S. Genetic analyses of visual pigments of the pigeon (Columba livia).. Genetics 1999 Dec;153(4):1839-50.
      doi: 10.1093/genetics/153.4.1839pubmed: 10581289google scholar: lookup
    Subscribe to our newsletter
    Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.