Around the world, there is growing concern about how much the equine industry prioritizes the health and well-being of domestic horses. [1]

Stakeholders within the industry, including horse owners, professionals, regulators and the public, recognize the need for sustainable and ethical practices in horse care, reflecting a broader societal shift towards accountability in equine welfare. [2]

While modern horse management intends to provide the best possible quality of life, there are common practices that have been called into question by health and welfare experts. Notably, practices including increased isolation due to housing in private stables and feeding small, grain-based meals with minimal turnout are currently under scrutiny.

Many of these practices are influenced by our human values and definition of comfort. By familiarizing themselves with the horse’s evolutionary adaptations and the impact of different management practices, horse owners and caretakers can make informed choices to promote overall well-being and welfare in their equine companions.

Basic Equine Welfare Needs

All animals have basic requirements that are essential for ensuring their overall welfare. These are referred to as their basic needs. [3]

Understanding the basic needs of any given animal is the first step in effectively assessing welfare. Examining how a horse lives and functions in their natural environment is necessary to define their basic needs. [4]

All species, including humans, have the same basic needs: [4]

  • Eating/drinking
  • Sleeping
  • Movement
  • Appropriate social opportunities
  • Suitable living environment

Maximizing equine welfare involves consistently meeting these species-specific needs. [5] In defining the basic needs of horses, equine behaviorist Lauren Fraser coined the phrase The 3 Fs, which refers to: [6]

  • Friends
  • Freedom
  • Forage

The 3 Fs are now widely accepted as the basic needs of a horse, and are supported by the findings of multiple studies. [6][7]

Welfare and Equine Behavior

Horse owners often report what they refer to as “undesirable behavior,” but in many cases these behaviors may point to a welfare issue. [7]

For example, up to 82% of horses in the UK present some kind of behavioral issue reported by owners, either during ridden work or related to stabling and handling. [8]

Research shows that the key management areas contributing to many common behavior issues seen in horses are related to some deficiency in one or a combination of the Fs. [9].

By making management decisions that aim to fulfill the 3 Fs, owners and caretakers can maximize welfare, prevent undesirable behavior, and improve the horse-human relationship.

Friends

Horses are a social prey animal. In the wild, they live in relatively stable bands consisting of three to twelve or more members and make their own choices regarding their social groups, relationships, and interactions. [10] They rely on communication with other horses for survival.

This codependence between horses is not only an important protection against predators. Horses also communicate to help each other identify food, water, shelter, and suitable environmental conditions. Additionally, they need social interactions and reproduction to ensure the continuation of their species. [11]

Wild bands of horses usually consist of a stallion, his harem of mares, and their offspring. “Bachelor” bands consisting solely of stallions may also form. Long periods of social isolation are rarely observed in the wild. [12]

Lead Stallions and Mares

There are many misconceptions about the natural life of a herd, such as having a lead stallion or mare. This was once considered true, but recent scientific observations have since disproved it. [13][14]

Social stability through group cohesion between horses is needed to decrease vulnerability to predators. Rather than establishing a ‘leader,’ horses rely on unity, avoiding collision with one another, communication, and group flight. [15]

Undomesticated horses sometimes stay together in the same group for years at a time, with low reports of aggression in observations of horses under natural conditions. [16] This suggests that competition to establish a leader is not a significant factor and aggression is not typical behaviour in these natural groups.

Social Opportunities in Domestication

In domestication, horses are often housed individually with limited social opportunities. This is a common practice in many horse facilities and has become standard for various reasons, including: [17]

  • Mitigating the risk of injury to horses
  • Owner discomfort introducing new horses to established groups
  • Difficulty feeding horses housed in groups
  • Handler safety concerns

Consequently, equine social interaction choices are often limited, reducing the ability to see, touch, smell and hear other horses for significant portions of the day. This can negatively impact their mental and physical health. [18]

In some cases, horses are nearly completely isolated from other horses or kept in stalls for most of the day. This is common for high-value horses like racehorses and breeding studs, usually due to concerns about the risk of injury or the belief that stallions should not be turned out with other horses. There are high rates of reported behavior issues in studies of these management conditions. [19][20]

Frequent changes in social companions are common in the equine industry, even in leisure settings. Unlike natural conditions where horses freely form affiliative relationships or change bands, suggesting they have social preferences,  domestic horses often lack choice in their social partners. [21] These frequent changes can increase aggression within a herd. [21]

Effects on Welfare

Behaviors associated with limited social opportunities include: [21][22][23][24][25][26][27]

  • Increased vigilance
  • Oral and motor stereotypies (e.g. cribbing, box walking, weaving etc.)
  • Depressive states
  • Poor social skills
  • Difficulty to handle/train
  • Altered time budgets (e.g. time spent sleeping, moving, foraging, etc.)

In addition, horses with limited social opportunities have elevated cortisol levels, which can indicate higher stress levels. Sustained periods of high cortisol can increase anxiety and are associated with: [28]

  • High blood pressure
  • Immune system dysfunction
  • Impaired learning and memory
  • Increased aggression
  • Inhibition of reproduction
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Improving Social Behaviours

Opportunities for domesticated horses to socialize vary according to various human factors, including:

  • Time
  • Financial considerations
  • Environmental constraints
  • Purpose of the horse

At a minimum, every horse requires the following to ensure their social needs are met: [29][30][31]

  • Contact with other horses: The ability to see, touch, smell and hear other horses for most of the day (at least 12+ hours). Facilities such as stalls with bars/grates in between stables, or windows where they can see other horses provide a better outcome than stables with solid walls. Horses in individual pastures benefit from having shared fencelines.
  • Appropriate herd size: There should be at least two horses in a pasture to prevent isolation or overcrowding. Final herd configurations depend on the number of horses in the facility, space available, the quality of pasture, size and type of horses, pasture maintenance, soil type and if the horses are stabled.
  • Herd stability: A stable herd means horses have been gradually introduced where necessary and the individuals included remain relatively constant. This helps establish and maintain a social structure and familiar relationships among the horses.

Consider temperament and personality when pairing horses or putting horses in a herd. Also ensure you can monitor interactions and make adjustments as required.

If you aren’t sure your horses have adequate social opportunities, or if you are concerned they are showing signs of stress, consider working with a qualified behaviorist to assist you with herd management.

Forage

Horses are natural grazers, spending 16 – 18 hours per day consuming forage-based diets. [32] This behavior includes grazing on grasses and browsing on available foliage, such as parts of trees, shrubs or other non-pasture species.

Equine Digestion

The horse’s entire gastrointestinal system, from their continuously growing teeth and robust jaw to their specialized stomach and hindgut, is uniquely adapted for processing forage. This adaptation allows them to efficiently rip, chew, and digest forage throughout the day. [33]

Saliva production aids in softening forage and buffering stomach acid, reducing the risk of gastric ulcers. [34]

The horse’s small stomach initiates food breakdown through acidic digestion. The lower two-thirds of the stomach are fortified with protective lining, while the upper one-third lacks this protection and is vulnerable to ulceration. [35]

Beyond the stomach, the small intestine processes proteins, fats, starches, and sugars within 30 – 90 minutes of consumption. Regular intake of fibre from grass and hay ensures continuous passage of food through the tract, leading to optimal nutrient absorption. [36]

The horse’s large hindgut is specialized for fermenting and breaking down fibre, their primary energy source, through the action of billions of bacteria populating the tract. [37]

Trickle-Feeding and Foraging Behavior

In the wild, horses exhibit trickle-feeding behavior, characterized by continuous intake of small amounts of forage throughout the day.

This natural feeding pattern is essential for maintaining digestive and metabolic health. Within a home range in the wild, horses have access to a wide variety of forage types, which are usually consumed from the ground. [38] In addition, there are some reports of equines consuming shrubs, tree foliage, or even fruit from trees. [39]

Foraging Opportunities in Domestication

Providing adequate access to forage of appropriate quality for a horse’s age, lifestyle, health status, and level of work is essential for ensuring the overall health and well-being of horses. However, several common practices can have a negative impact on meeting basic equine needs.

Overnight Forage Deprivation

Horses are commonly provided hay once or twice a day, with no additional feeding overnight. [40] In this management routine, hay may not last until the next feeding, as studies show that hay in small or large-holed haynets is typically consumed within 4 – 5.5 hours. [41][42]

Consequently, horses may go up to 8 hours without hay, which greatly increases the risk of gastric ulcers. This common practice deprives horses of continuous grazing opportunities, which are essential for mimicking their natural feeding behavior.

Access to Natural Foraging Behavior

The type of foraging access provided to horses often deviates from their natural behavior. In many stables, forage may be offered in raised nets, rather than on the ground. [43] Foraging at ground level allows horses to exhibit natural grazing behavior and promotes posture.

Accessing forage only from elevated nets or racks not only restricts these natural behaviors, but can also increase the risk of respiratory issues due to dust inhalation, and cause tension and pain in the back and neck. [44][45]

Balancing Forage and Concentrates in a Horse’s Diet

Feeding too much grain, or starch and sugar, can overwhelm the horse’s metabolism and lead to health issues, including: [46]

On the other hand, horses with higher energy needs, such as those with high exercise workloads, pregnant or lactating mares, and growing foals, may suffer from nutrient deficiencies if their diets are not adequately supplemented. This can impact muscle development, bone strength, and energy levels. [47]

Regardless of the amount of concentrate fed, providing continuous access to forage is fundamental for maintaining healthy digestion and preventing physical and behavioral issues. A qualified equine nutritionist can help to find the right balance.

Behaviors associated with lack of access to forage include: [9][48][49][50][51][52]

  • Stereotypies
  • Pica; compulsive eating of material that may or may not be foodstuff such as ingesting dirt, wood, wood shavings
  • Coprophagy (in adult horses); ingesting feces
  • Aggression
  • Resource-guarding
  • Frustration behaviors at feeding time

Behaviors associated with diets that contain excessive sugar and starch from grain-based feeds include: [53][54][55]

  • Increased aggression
  • Hypervigilance and alertness
  • Stereotypies
  • Difficulty handling and training
  • Increased startle reaction
  • Withdrawal/unresponsiveness to environment

Improving Foraging Behaviours

While there are a variety of considerations for different horse operations with respect to turnout and forage, optimizing foraging opportunities is beneficial for horse’s health and mental well being. Specific recommendations for optimal foraging include: [56][57][58][59]

  • Provide 24/7 access to free-choice forage: Ensuring hay is always available helps prevent boredom and associated behavioral issues, and also supports overall digestive health.
  • Provide foraging enrichment: Foraging enrichment can include items such as cardboard boxes, footballs, PVC pipes with holes filled with hay, or hay balls. Non-toxic adult tree branches, leaves, and shrubs can be added for extra stimulation. Ensure all materials are non-toxic, free from sharp edges or small parts, and regularly inspect and replace damaged items to maintain a safe environment for your horse.
  • Use slow feeders: Slow feeders placed in boxes or crates on the floor are best practice over elevated haynets because they allow horses to eat in a more natural, comfortable position. Slow feeders regulate the amount of hay available, encouraging slower consumption and optimal digestion. There is evidence showing horses using slow feeders have an increased friendliness towards humans, and lower incidence of stereotypies.
  • Use appropriate feeding systems: Avoid haynets with very small holes, which can frustrate horses. Choose haynets with appropriately sized openings that allow horses to eat comfortably without causing undue frustration or difficulty.
  • Simulate natural foraging behavior: Offer varying configurations and locations of hay presentation, such as a combination of hay nets, hay on the ground, and slow feeders, to promote movement within the stable.

Each horse has unique dietary requirements based on factors such as age, workload, health status, and metabolism. Consulting a qualified equine nutritionist can help tailor a feeding plan that meets the specific nutritional needs of each horse.

Freedom

Freedom is the ability to act without hindrance or restraint. In their natural environment, horses have the freedom to:

  • Determine their level of interaction with herd mates
  • Graze as much as they want on any forage available
  • Engage in various natural behaviors such as rolling, playing, resting, mating, mutual grooming, and wandering

For all animals, freedom encompasses personal choice.

By respecting the horse’s species-specific physical and behavioral needs, owners and caretakers can provide a domesticated lifestyle that is well aligned to their natural adaptations. Doing so promotes overall welfare and well being, which supports health and longevity and promotes a positive relationship between handlers and their equine charges.

Continuous Grazing and Movement

Continuous movement from grazing not only supports the horse’s nutritional needs but also ensures ongoing physical activity. Grazing continually involves steady movement across their environment as horses seek out food and water sources.

Home Ranges

Wild horses have expansive home ranges, spanning from 7 to 826 square kilometres (or 4 to 318 square miles), which illustrates their fundamental need for space and freedom. [60][61]

Covering a lot of ground allows horses to fulfil their natural instincts and find adequate resources in their environment.

Daily Exercise Requirements

In the wild, horses can cover an average distance of 8 – 28 km (5.0 – 18 mi) per day. [62] This continuous free exercise not only maintains their physical condition but also supports their mental well being by allowing them to express natural behaviors.

Freedom in Domestication

In domestication, horses often face several limitations that can affect their natural behaviors and well being, including: [17][30][63][64]

  • Fixed Feeding: Horses are typically provided with forage or food kept in one spot, in haynets or buckets. This stationary feeding setup contrasts with their natural grazing behavior, where they roam to find and consume food throughout the day.
  • Limited Movement: Many domesticated horses experience limited movement for the majority of the day, confined to stables or small paddocks. Domesticated horses have access to paddocks that can range from a few square metres to a few acres, however, they move or travel substantially less than their wild counterparts.
  • Limited Space: The availability of space for horses varies widely in domestication, however, limited space can restrict their ability to move freely, interact socially, and engage in natural behaviors like rolling, running, and play. Limited space can also lead to overcrowding, causing aggression within a herd due to resource guarding.
  • Suppressed Flight Behavior: Horses have a natural instinct to flee if they perceive a threat, a vital survival mechanism in the wild. In domestication their freedom to express this behavior is often restricted or suppressed due to confinement or by a handler.

Freedom of Choice

In domestication, horses have limited freedom of choice compared to their wild counterparts. While they can choose when to eat and drink within the confines of their feeding schedule, other choices are often constrained by human management practices.

Restrictive training practices and equipment can limit horses’ natural movement and behaviors. Tack such as bits, draw reins, side reins, and standing martingales can force unnatural postures and hinder biomechanical comfort. [65]

Equipment marketed to prevent stereotypic behaviors, like cribbing collars, ill-tasting paste, or anti-weaving grills, suppresses stress expression without addressing the underlying causes.

Understanding the principles of training can empower horse owners to evaluate whether their preferred training program or equipment genuinely promotes a horse’s freedom while learning and respects their natural behaviors and needs.

Behaviors associated with lack of freedom may include: [65][66][67][68][69][70][71]

  • Stereotypies
  • Rebound behavior; exhibiting exaggerated or intensified behaviors after a period of restraint, deprivation, or suppression
  • Increased difficulty of handling and training
  • Depressive states/learned helplessness
  • Vigilance and/or anxiety
  • Reluctance to be around specific individuals or people in general

Improving Freedom

Horse owners and caretakers can compensate for the unavoidable aspects of management that impact equine freedom by providing alternate opportunities. General recommendations to promote freedom of movement and choice in horses include: [20][62][72][73]

  • Provide Adequate Turnout: Ensure horses have access to spacious turnout areas or pasture where they can move freely (around 1 – 1.5 acre per horse as a guide) for most of the day (at least 12+ hours per day)
  • Provide Egress from Social Interactions: Ensure horses are able to choose when to socialize with others and engage in natural behaviors. Horses on turnout should have adequate space to flee interactions if they choose.
  • Train Ergonomically: Choose tack and equipment that allows for natural movement and comfort. Avoid gadgets or devices that restrict movement or force unnatural postures. Choose gentle alternatives that respect the horse’s natural way of going.
  • Train Positively: Focus on training methods that emphasize positive reinforcement to encourage desired behaviors. Rewarding desired behavior builds confidence and improves the horse-human relationship, promoting active engagement in training sessions

If you are concerned about overgrazing or poaching when increasing turnout, consider using a track system or Paddock Paradise. A track system is a continuous, often circular or oval fenced path around a central area that encourages natural movement and exercise.

These systems provide space for grazing, shelter, and enrichment. Track systems have various food and water sources and added natural elements such as logs and sandpits placed throughout. Exploring these man-made environments promotes physical health, reduces the risk of obesity and boredom, and stimulates more natural behaviors by providing varied terrain and enrichment opportunities.

Summary

Prioritizing the health and well-being of domestic horses is fundamental for the ethical treatment and quality of life of horses. Research highlights the importance of fulfilling the Three F’s – Friends, Forage, and Freedom – to ensure optimal welfare.

Neglecting these fundamental needs compromises horse welfare and risks the industry’s social license to operate. By understanding and addressing these needs, horse owners can contribute to a brighter future for equine well being, fostering both a humane and sustainable equine industry.

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