FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Journal of child & adolescent trauma2024; 18(1); 139-149; doi: 10.1007/s40653-024-00666-x

An Equine-Assisted Intervention Versus Non-Manualized Psychotherapy for Youth in a Residential Childcare Facility.

Abstract: Characteristics of individuals with disruptive behavior disorders often include elevated externalizing behaviors such as impulsivity, defiance of authority and antagonism of social norms. Evidence shows that adolescents diagnosed with these types of disorders are particularly challenging to treat; however, therapies incorporating horses have shown some success. We examined the impact of an equine-assisted intervention compared to a non-manualized cognitive behavioral therapy in youth between 12- and 18-years old living in a residential childcare facility. Upon admittance, youth were administered three assessments: the Youth Self-Report, Adolescent Psychopathology Scale, and Basic Empathy Scale. Youth scoring in the clinical range for at least one externalizing subscale of the Youth Self-Report were assigned to equine-assisted intervention (EQI;  = 23) or non-manualized cognitive behavioral therapy (NM-CBT;  = 20) groups. Each group received a total of 7 h of treatment per week (three 2-hr group sessions and one 1-hr individual session) for 24 weeks. After 24 weeks of treatment, the same three assessments were administered a second time. There were no significant differences between the NM-CBT and EQI groups in the amount of change between assessments. A significant time effect was found for total externalizing behaviors in the Adolescent Psychopathology Scale and Youth Self-Report such that these measures were within the normal range after 24 weeks of treatment for participants in both groups.
© The Author(s) 2024.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2024-10-30 PubMed ID: 40098785PubMed Central: PMC11910449DOI: 10.1007/s40653-024-00666-xGoogle Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This study compared the effects of an equine-assisted intervention (therapy involving horses) with non-manualized cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) on adolescents with disruptive behavior disorders living in a residential childcare facility.
  • Both groups showed improvements in externalizing behaviors after 24 weeks, with no significant difference between the two treatment types.

Background

  • Disruptive behavior disorders in youth are characterized by heightened externalizing behaviors such as impulsivity, defiance, and antagonism toward social norms.
  • Adolescents with these disorders are often difficult to treat using conventional methods.
  • Equine-assisted therapy, which involves interactions with horses, has demonstrated some promise as a treatment approach for this population.

Study Objective

  • To evaluate the effectiveness of equine-assisted intervention (EQI) compared to a non-manualized cognitive behavioral therapy (NM-CBT) on reducing externalizing behaviors in youth aged 12-18 in a residential childcare setting.

Participants and Methodology

  • Youth entering the residential facility were screened using three assessment tools:
    • Youth Self-Report (YSR)
    • Adolescent Psychopathology Scale (APS)
    • Basic Empathy Scale (BES)
  • Youth who scored in the clinical range on at least one externalizing subscale of the YSR were selected for the study.
  • These participants were assigned into two groups:
    • Equine-Assisted Intervention group (EQI), n=23
    • Non-Manualized Cognitive Behavioral Therapy group (NM-CBT), n=20
  • Each group received equal total weekly treatment dosage:
    • 7 hours per week (three 2-hour group sessions and one 1-hour individual session)
    • Treatment duration was 24 weeks

Assessments and Measurements

  • The same three assessment tools (YSR, APS, BES) were administered at baseline (upon admittance) and again after 24 weeks of treatment.
  • Focus was particularly on externalizing behavior subscales to measure change.

Results

  • No significant differences were found between the EQI and NM-CBT groups in the degree of change from baseline to post-treatment.
  • Both groups demonstrated significant improvement over time in total externalizing behaviors as measured by the APS and YSR, moving from clinical to normal ranges by the end of treatment.

Conclusions and Implications

  • Both equine-assisted intervention and non-manualized cognitive behavioral therapy were effective in reducing externalizing symptoms in youth with disruptive behavior disorders in residential care.
  • The equine-assisted approach did not outperform the NM-CBT despite prior suggestions of its benefit.
  • This suggests that structured therapeutic interventions, regardless of type, can yield substantial improvements in challenging youth populations.
  • Further research may explore combining or individualizing approaches or long-term outcomes beyond 24 weeks.

Cite This Article

APA
Berg EL, Gooch M, Feldmann LM, Knight B, Verlaine J, Bach-Gorman A. (2024). An Equine-Assisted Intervention Versus Non-Manualized Psychotherapy for Youth in a Residential Childcare Facility. J Child Adolesc Trauma, 18(1), 139-149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-024-00666-x

Publication

Journal of child & adolescent trauma
ISSN: 1936-1521
NlmUniqueID: 101306630
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 18
Issue: 1
Pages: 139-149

Researcher Affiliations

Berg, Erika L
  • Department of Animal Sciences, North Dakota State University, PO Box 6050, Dept 7630, Fargo, ND 58108-6050 USA.
Gooch, Mike
  • Northern Nevada HOPES, Reno, NV USA.
Feldmann, Laura M
  • Home on the Range, Sentinel Butte, ND USA.
Knight, Bettye
  • Home on the Range, Sentinel Butte, ND USA.
Verlaine, Jess
  • Home on the Range, Sentinel Butte, ND USA.
Bach-Gorman, Amber
  • Amber Bach-Gorman Counseling and Consulting Services, Fargo, ND USA.

Conflict of Interest Statement

Conflict of interestOn behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 88 references
  1. Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2001). . University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.
  2. Acri M, Morrissey M, Peth-Pierce R, Seibel L, Seag D, Hamovitch EK, Guo F, Horwitz S, Hoagwood KE. Equine-assisted therapy for youth with mild to moderate anxiety: Manual development and fidelity. , , 2461–2467.
    doi: 10.1007/s10826-021-02011-4google scholar: lookup
  3. Althubaiti A. Information bias in health research: Definition, pitfalls, and adjustment methods. , , 211–217.
    doi: 10.2147/JMDH.S104807pmc: PMC4862344pubmed: 27217764google scholar: lookup
  4. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). (5th ed.). APA.
  5. Arnon S, Fisher PW, Pickover A, Lowell A, Turner JB, Hilburn A, Neria Y. Equine-assisted therapy for veterans with PTSD: Manual development and preliminary findings. (5–6), e557–e564.
    doi: 10.1093/milmed/usz444pmc: PMC7282489pubmed: 32034416google scholar: lookup
  6. Ascione FR. Children who are cruel to animals: A review of research and implications for developmental psychopathology. (4), 226–247.
    doi: 10.2752/089279393787002105google scholar: lookup
  7. Asher, S. R., & Coie, J. D. (Eds.). (1990). . Cambridge University Press.
  8. Bachi K, Terkel J, Teichman M. Equine-facilitated psychotherapy for at-risk adolescents: The influence on self-image, self-control and trust. (2), 298–312.
    doi: 10.1177/1359104511404177pubmed: 21757481google scholar: lookup
  9. Battagliese G, Caccetta M, Luppino OI, Baglioni C, Cardi V, Mancini F, Buonanno C. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for externalizing disorders: A meta-analysis of treatment effectiveness. , , 60–71.
    doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2015.10.008pubmed: 26575979google scholar: lookup
  10. Berg EL, Bach-Gorman AR, Hammer CJ. Psychotherapy incorporating horses to address anxiety in women college students: A pilot study. , , 79–83.
    doi: 10.1079/hai.2021.0037google scholar: lookup
  11. Bergman LR, Magnusson D. A person-oriented approach in research on developmental psychopathology. (2), 291–319.
    doi: 10.1017/s095457949700206xpubmed: 9201446google scholar: lookup
  12. Bilinsky, C. (2011). . (Publication No. 3469056) [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University] ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
  13. Bland JM, Altman DG. Statistics Notes: Some examples of regression towards the mean. 780.
    pmc: PMC2541039pubmed: 7950567doi: 10.1136/bmj.309.6957.780google scholar: lookup
  14. Brown WJ, Dewey D, Bunnell BE, Boyd SJ, Wilkerson AK, Mitchell MA, Bruce SE. A critical review of negative affect and the application of CBT for PTSD. (2), 176–194.
    doi: 10.1177/1524838016650188pubmed: 27301345google scholar: lookup
  15. Bryant RA, Felmingham KL, Falconer EM, Benito P, Dobson-Stone L, Pierce C, Schofield KD. Preliminary evidence of the short allele of the serotonin transporter gene predicting poor response to cognitive behavior therapy in posttraumatic stress disorder. (12), 1217–1219.
    doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.03.016pubmed: 20434135google scholar: lookup
  16. Cairns, R. B., & Cairns, B. D. (1994). . Cambridge University Press.
  17. Caspi A, Elder GH Jr, Herbener ES. Childhood personality and the prediction of life-course patterns. In L. N. Robins, & M. Rutter (Eds.), (pp. 13–35).
  18. Chamberlain, P. (2003). . American Psychological Association.
  19. Chandler, C. K. (2005). . Routledge.
  20. Cohen D, Strayer J. Empathy in conduct-disordered and comparison youth. , (6), 988–998.
    doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.32.6.988google scholar: lookup
  21. Cohen JA, Berliner L, Mannarino A. Trauma focused CBT for children with co-occurring trauma and behavior problems. , (4), 215–224.
    doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2009.12.003pubmed: 20304489google scholar: lookup
  22. Conner DF, Carlson GA, Chang KD, Daniolos PT, Ferziger R, Findling RL, StanfordHoward/AACAP Workgroup on Juvenile Impulsivity and Aggression. Juvenile maladaptive aggression: A review of prevention, treatment and service configuration and a proposed research agenda. , (5), 808–820.
    doi: 10.4088/JCP.v67n0516pubmed: 16841631google scholar: lookup
  23. Daly B, Morton LL. An investigation of human-animal interactions and empathy as related to pet preference, ownership, attachment and attitudes in children. , (2), 113–117.
    doi: 10.2752/089279306785593801google scholar: lookup
  24. Deaton, C. (2008). . . 3361. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/etd-project/3361
  25. DePrekel M, Neznik K. Animal assisted Group interventions for the Treatment of Trauma. In K. S. Trotter (Ed.), (pp. 41–48).
  26. Dishion TJ, French DC, Patterson GR. The development and ecology of antisocial behavior. In D. Cicchetti, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), (pp. 421–471).
  27. Eisenberg, N., & Strayer, J. (1987). . Cambridge University Press.
  28. Enoch M. The first steps on the path toward genomic predictors of behavioral therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder. (11), 1039–1040.
    doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.04.005pmc: PMC4159136pubmed: 23647733google scholar: lookup
  29. Equine Assisted Growth and Learning Association. (n.d.). Retrieved June 4 (2021). from https://www.eagala.org/model
  30. Ewing CA, MacDonald PM, Taylor M, Bowers MJ. Equine-facilitated learning for youths with severe emotional disorders: A quantitative and qualitative study. 59–72.
    doi: 10.1007/s10566-006-9031-xgoogle scholar: lookup
  31. Gergley, E. (2020). Aug 6–8) . APA 2020 Virtual Conference.
  32. Hastings PD, Zahn-Waxler C, Robinson J, Usher B, Bridges D. The development of concern for others in children with behavior problems. (5), 531–546.
    doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.36.5.531pubmed: 10976595google scholar: lookup
  33. Henggeler, S. W., Schoenwald, S. K., Borduin, C. M., Rowland, M. D., & Cunningham, P. B. (2009). (2nd ed.). Guilford Press.
  34. Ho NF, Zhou J, Fung DSS, Kua PHJ. Equine-assisted learning in youths at-risk for school or social failure. , (1). Article 1334430.
    doi: 10.1080/2331186x.2017.1334430google scholar: lookup
  35. Hoffman ML. Sex differences in moral internalization and values. , (4), 720–729.
    doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.32.4.720pubmed: 1185510google scholar: lookup
  36. Hoyer J, Čolić J, Pittig A, Crawcour S, Moeser M, Ginzburg D, Stangier U. Manualized cognitive therapy versus cognitive-behavioral treatment-as-usual for social anxiety disorder in routine practice: A cluster-randomized controlled trial. , , 87–98.
    doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2017.05.012pubmed: 28600953google scholar: lookup
  37. Irwin, C. (2001). . Marlowe & Co.
  38. Johansen SG, Wang A, Binder CE, P-E, Malt UF. Equine-facilitated body and emotion-oriented psychotherapy designed for adolescents and adults not responding to mainstream treatment: A structured program.. (4), 323–335.
    doi: 10.1037/a0038139google scholar: lookup
  39. Jolliffe D, Farrington DP. Empathy and offending: A systematic review and meta-analysis.. (5), 441–476.
    doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2003.03.001google scholar: lookup
  40. Jolliffe D, Farrington DP. Development and validation of the Basic Empathy Scale. (4), 589–611.
    doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2005.08.010pubmed: 16198409google scholar: lookup
  41. Kaminski JW, Claussen AH. Evidence base update for psychosocial treatments for disruptive behaviors in children. (4), 477–499.
    doi: 10.1080/15374416.2017.1310044pmc: PMC5600477pubmed: 28459280google scholar: lookup
  42. Karol J. Applying a traditional individual psychotherapy model to equine-facilitated psychotherapy (EFP): Theory and method. (1), 77–90.
    doi: 10.1177/1359104507071057pubmed: 17375810google scholar: lookup
  43. Keaveney SM. Equines and their human companions. (5), 444–454.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2007.07.017google scholar: lookup
  44. Kersten G, Thomas L. Equine Assisted Psychotherapy and Learning: Untraining Manual. EAGALA 3rd ed. Jan 1, 2004.
  45. Kirby M. Gestalt equine psychotherapy. , (2), 60–68.
  46. Komorosky D, O’Neal KK. The development of empathy and prosocial behavior through humane education, restorative justice, and animal-assisted programs.. , (4), 395–406.
    doi: 10.1080/10282580.2015.1093684google scholar: lookup
  47. Kruger KA, Serpell JA. Animal-assisted interventions in mental health: Definitions and theoretical foundations.. In A. H. Fine (Ed.), (3rd ed., pp. 33–48). Elsevier Academic Press.
    doi: 10.1016/b978-0-12-381453-1.10003-0google scholar: lookup
  48. Kruger K, Trachtenberg S, Serpell JA. Can animals help humans heal? Animal-assisted interventions in adolescent mental health. .
  49. Ladewig J. Clever Hans is still whinnying with us. (1), 20–21.
    doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2006.10.014pubmed: 17399916google scholar: lookup
  50. Lentini JA, Knox MS. Equine-facilitated psychotherapy with children and adolescents: An update and literature review.. , (3), 278–305.
    doi: 10.1080/15401383.2015.1023916google scholar: lookup
  51. Linden A. Assessing regression to the mean effects in health care initiatives.. , ., Article 119.
    pmc: PMC3849564pubmed: 24073634doi: 10.1186/1471-2288-13-119google scholar: lookup
  52. Lochman JE, Powell NP, Boxmeyer CL, Jimenez-Camargo L. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for Externalizing disorders in children and adolescents. (2), 305–318.
    doi: 10.1016/j.chc.2011.01.005pubmed: 21440857google scholar: lookup
  53. Loeber R, Stouthamer-Loeber M. Development of juvenile aggression and violence– some common misconceptions and controversies. (2), 242–259.
    doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.53.2.242pubmed: 9491750google scholar: lookup
  54. Lonergan N. Cognitive behavioral therapy for PTSD: The role of Complex PTSD on Treatment Outcome. (5), 494–512.
    doi: 10.1080/10926771.2014.904467google scholar: lookup
  55. Luk ESL, Staiger PK, Wong L, Mathai J. Children who are cruel to animals: A revisit. (1), 29–36.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1440-1614.1999.00528.xpubmed: 10197883google scholar: lookup
  56. McCart N, Sheidow AJ. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for adolescents with disruptive behavior. (5), 529–563.
    doi: 10.1080/15374416.2016.1146990pmc: PMC5055452pubmed: 27152911google scholar: lookup
  57. McCormick, A. R., & McCormick, M. D. (1997). . Health Communications Inc.
  58. Miller PA, Eisenberg N. The relationship of empathy to aggressive and externalizing/antisocial behavior. (3), 324–344.
    doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.103.3.324pubmed: 3289071google scholar: lookup
  59. Mueller MK, McCullough L. Effects of equine-facilitated psychotherapy on post-traumatic stress symptoms in youth. (4), 1164–1172.
    doi: 10.1007/s10826-016-0648-6google scholar: lookup
  60. Murphy M, Cowan R, Sederer L. Disorders of childhood and adolescence. In R. C. Murrihy, A. D. Kidman, & T. H. Ollendick (Eds.), (2nd ed., p. 42).
  61. Naste TM, Price M, Karol J, Martin, Murphy K, Miguel J, Spinazzola J. Equine Facilitated Therapy for Complex Trauma (EFT-CT). , (3), 289–303.
    pmc: PMC6132374pubmed: 30220956doi: 10.1007/s40653-017-0187-3google scholar: lookup
  62. Ollendick TH, Jarrett MA, Grills-Taquechel AE, Hovey LD, Wolff JC. Comorbidity as a predictor and moderator of treatment outcome in youth with anxiety, affective, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and oppositional conduct disorders. (8), 1447–1471.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2008.09.003pubmed: 18973971google scholar: lookup
  63. Pelyva IM, Kresak R, Szovak E, Toth AL. How equine-assisted activities affect the prosocial behavior of adolescents.. (8), 2967.
    doi: 10.3390/ijerph17082967pmc: PMC7216257pubmed: 32344787google scholar: lookup
  64. Penalva CV. The experiences of incarcerated young men in equine-facilitated psychotherapy: An interpretive phenomenological analysis. NSUWorks, College of Arts, Humanities and Social Sciences– Department of Family Therapy [Doctoral Dissertation, Nova Southeastern University] 2021.
  65. Perkins BL. A pilot study assessing the effectiveness of equine-assisted learning with adolescents. (3), 298–305.
    doi: 10.1080/15401383.2018.1427168google scholar: lookup
  66. Poresky H. Companion animals and other factors affecting young children’s development. (4), 159–168.
    doi: 10.2752/089279396787001437google scholar: lookup
  67. Poresky RH, Hendrix C. Differential effects of pet presence and pet-bonding on young children. (1), 51–54.
    doi: 10.2466/pr0.1990.67.1.51pubmed: 2236419google scholar: lookup
  68. Professional Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship International. (n.d.). Retrieved December 2 (2021). from https://pathintl.org/
  69. Reynolds, W. M. (1998). . Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
  70. Rice, R. H. (2015). Cognitive-behavioral therapy. , , 194–199. 10.4135/9781483346502
    doi: 10.4135/9781483346502google scholar: lookup
  71. Richardson, R. C., & Norman, K. I. (2000). Intrinsic goodness: Facilitating Character Development. , (4), 168–172. 10.1080/00228958.2000.10518779
    doi: 10.1080/00228958.2000.10518779google scholar: lookup
  72. Roberts, H., & Honzel, N. (2020). The effectiveness of equine-facilitated psychotherapy in adolescents with serious emotional disturbances. , (1), 133–144. 10.1080/08927936.2020.1694317
    doi: 10.1080/08927936.2020.1694317google scholar: lookup
  73. Roberts, F., Bradberry, J., & Williams, C. (2004). Equine-facilitated psychotherapy benefits students and children. , (4), 32–35. 10.1097/00004650-200401000-00006n
    doi: 10.1097/00004650-200401000-00006pubmed: 14765690google scholar: lookup
  74. Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Seeley, J. R. (1996). Psychiatric comorbidity with problematic alcohol use in high school students. , (1), 101–109. 10.1097/00004583-199601000-00018n
    doi: 10.1097/00004583-199601000-00018pubmed: 8567601google scholar: lookup
  75. Salas-Wright, C. P., Olate, R., & Vaughn, M. G. (2013). Assessing Empathy in Salvadoran high-risk and gang-involved adolescents and young adults: A Spanish validation of the Basic Empathy Scale. , (11), 1393–1416. 10.1177/0306624x12455170n
    doi: 10.1177/0306624x12455170pubmed: 22859664google scholar: lookup
  76. Saslow, C. (2002). Understanding the perceptual world of horses. , (2–4), 209–224. 10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00092-8
    doi: 10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00092-8google scholar: lookup
  77. Stebbins, T. (2012). (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Cleveland OH: Cleveland State University.
  78. Stiltner, C. (2013). . (Publication No. 3587585) [Doctoral Dissertation. Capella University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
  79. Sukhodolsky, D. G., Kassinove, H., & Gorman, B. S. (2004). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anger in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. , (3), 247–269. 10.1016/j.avb.2003.08.005
    doi: 10.1016/j.avb.2003.08.005google scholar: lookup
  80. Taiwo, A. O., & Osinowo, H. O. (2011). Treating anti-social behavior in adolescents: A comparison of multi-modal and psychodynamic oriented group interventions. , (4), 627–632. 10.1080/14330237.2011.10820511
    doi: 10.1080/14330237.2011.10820511google scholar: lookup
  81. Thompson, K. L., & Gullone, E. (2008). Prosocial and antisocial behaviors in adolescents: An Investigation into associations with attachment and Empathy. , (2), 123–137. 10.2752/175303708X305774
    doi: 10.2752/175303708X305774google scholar: lookup
  82. Trotter, K. S., Chandler, C. K., Goodwin-Bond, D., & Casey, J. (2008). A comparative study of the Efficacy of Group Equine assisted counseling with At-Risk children and adolescents. , (3), 254–284. 10.1080/15401380802356880
    doi: 10.1080/15401380802356880google scholar: lookup
  83. Vidrine, M., Owen-Smith, P., & Faulkner, P. (2002). Equine-facilitated Group Psychotherapy: Applications for therapeutic vaulting. , (6), 587–603. 10.1080/01612840290052730n
    doi: 10.1080/01612840290052730pubmed: 12217223google scholar: lookup
  84. Watkins, L. E., Sprang, K. R., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2018). Treating PTSD: A review of evidence-based psychotherapy interventions. , , 258. n
    doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00258pmc: PMC6224348pubmed: 30450043google scholar: lookup
  85. Weisz, J. R., & Kazdin, A. E. (2010). . Guilford Press.
  86. Wood, W., Alm, K., Benjamin, J., Thomas, L., Anderson, D., Pohl, L., & Kane, M. (2021). Optimal terminology for services in the United States that incorporate horses to benefit people: A consensus document. , (1), 88–95. 10.1089/acm.2020.0415n
    doi: 10.1089/acm.2020.0415pubmed: 33252244google scholar: lookup
  87. Yorke, J., Adams, C., & Coady, N. (2008). Therapeutic value of equine–human bonding in recovery from. , (1), 17–30. 10.2752/089279308X274038
    doi: 10.2752/089279308X274038google scholar: lookup
  88. Zych, I., Farrington, D. P., Nasaescu, E., Jolliffee, D., & Twardowska-Staszek, E. (2022). Psychometric properties of the Basic Empathy Scale in Polish children and adolescents. , , 1957–1966. 10.1007/s12144-020-00670-y
    doi: 10.1007/s12144-020-00670-ygoogle scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,417 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.