FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Vaccines (Basel) / An Outbreak of Equine Herpesvirus-4 in an Ecological Donkey ...
Vaccines2022; 10(3); 468; doi: 10.3390/vaccines10030468

An Outbreak of Equine Herpesvirus-4 in an Ecological Donkey Milk Farm in Romania.

Abstract: Equine herpesviruses are important pathogens causing significant economic loss in equine and asinine populations. EHV-1/4 strains are mainly associated with respiratory distress. The aim of this study is to report the first EHV 4-associated respiratory disease in donkeys in Romania. Thirty-seven of three hundred jennies in an ecological donkey farm in southwest Romania started initially showing signs of severe upper respiratory tract disease, with ten concomitant late abortions/neonatal deaths and three neurological cases. There were nine fatalities. Pathological examination was performed, and samples were collected for Real-Time PCR analysis and histology. In addition, serum samples from 28 individuals with respiratory symptoms were collected and tested using indirect ELISA. RT-PCR identified the EHV-4 strain. Acute, diffuse necrotizing bronchointerstitial pneumonia with occasional intraepithelial intranuclear viral inclusion bodies was identified. Additionally, EHV-1/4-specific antibodies were found in 15 of the 28 sampled animals. Few studies on donkeys and herpesviruses have been published, and this is the first reported case of EHV-4 outbreak in Romania. There is a need for more extensive seroprevalence studies as, currently, the status of EHV-4 infection in donkeys in Romania is unknown.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2022-03-18 PubMed ID: 35335100PubMed Central: PMC8953855DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10030468Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Case Reports

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article discusses an outbreak of Equine Herpesvirus-4 (EHV-4), a disease primarily causing respiratory distress, in an ecological donkey farm in Romania. Specifically, it reports on the first documented instance of EHV-4 related respiratory illness in Romanian donkeys.

Context and Aim

  • Equine herpesviruses, including EHV-4, are significant threats to equine (horse-like) and asinine (donkey-like) populations, causing substantial economic losses due to disease spread.
  • Typically, EHV-1/4 strains lead to severe respiratory problems in the affected animals.
  • The goal of this study was to report the first outbreak of EHV-4 related respiratory disease in donkeys in Romania.

Outbreak Details & Initial Observations

  • The outbreak occurred in an ecological donkey farm situated in southwest Romania, affecting 37 out of a population of 300 female donkeys (jennies).
  • Initial symptoms included severe upper respiratory tract disease, along with ten cases of late abortion or neonatal deaths and three neurological cases.
  • The outbreak resulted in nine fatalities in total.

Research Method and Findings

  • The researchers conducted a pathological examination and collected samples for real-time Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) analysis and histology (study of tissue).
  • In addition, serum (blood component) samples were taken from 28 individuals exhibiting respiratory symptoms and tested using indirect ELISA (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay), a technique for detecting antibodies in the blood.
  • Real-time PCR analysis identified the disease as the EHV-4 strain.
  • Pathological results pointed to acute, diffuse necrotizing bronchointerstitial pneumonia with rare intraepithelial intranuclear viral inclusion bodies – indicative of viral infection.
  • ELISA testing unveiled EHV-1/4 specific antibodies in 15 of the 28 sampled animals, further confirming the infection.

Significance and Future Considerations

  • There have been limited studies addressing the herpesviruses in donkeys; therefore, this study fills some of the gap, specifically about EHV-4 in Romanian donkeys.
  • This research marks the first report of an EHV-4 outbreak in Romania, highlighting a clear need for more extensive seroprevalence studies (studies investigating the presence of disease-fighting antibodies in a population).
  • Currently, the status of EHV-4 infection in donkeys in Romania is unknown, necessitating more research in this line.

Cite This Article

APA
Mureşan A, Mureşan C, Siteavu M, Avram E, Bochynska D, Taulescu M. (2022). An Outbreak of Equine Herpesvirus-4 in an Ecological Donkey Milk Farm in Romania. Vaccines (Basel), 10(3), 468. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10030468

Publication

Vaccines
ISSN: 2076-393X
NlmUniqueID: 101629355
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 10
Issue: 3
PII: 468

Researcher Affiliations

Mureşan, Alexandra
  • Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
Mureşan, Cosmin
  • Department of Surgery, Anesthesia and Intensive Care, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
Siteavu, Madalina
  • Synevovet Laboratory, B-dul Pache Protopopescu, Nr. 81, 021408 Bucuresti, Romania.
  • Department of Pathology and Forensic Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, 050097 Bucharest, Romania.
Avram, Electra
  • Synevovet Laboratory, B-dul Pache Protopopescu, Nr. 81, 021408 Bucuresti, Romania.
Bochynska, Diana
  • Department of Anatomical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
Taulescu, Marian
  • Synevovet Laboratory, B-dul Pache Protopopescu, Nr. 81, 021408 Bucuresti, Romania.
  • Department of Anatomical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca, 400372 Cluj-Napoca, Romania.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 54 references
  1. Patel JR, Heldens J. Equine herpesviruses 1 (EHV-1) and 4 (EHV-4)--epidemiology, disease and immunoprophylaxis: a brief review.. Vet J 2005 Jul;170(1):14-23.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2004.04.018pubmed: 15993786google scholar: lookup
  2. Ma G, Azab W, Osterrieder N. Equine herpesviruses type 1 (EHV-1) and 4 (EHV-4)--masters of co-evolution and a constant threat to equids and beyond.. Vet Microbiol 2013 Nov 29;167(1-2):123-34.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.06.018pubmed: 23890672google scholar: lookup
  3. Adler B, Sattler C, Adler H. Herpesviruses and Their Host Cells: A Successful Liaison.. Trends Microbiol 2017 Mar;25(3):229-241.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2016.11.009pubmed: 27956142google scholar: lookup
  4. Pusterla N, Leutenegger CM, Wilson WD, Watson JL, Ferraro GL, Madigan JE. Equine herpesvirus-4 kinetics in peripheral blood leukocytes and nasopharyngeal secretions in foals using quantitative real-time TaqMan PCR.. J Vet Diagn Invest 2005 Nov;17(6):578-81.
    doi: 10.1177/104063870501700610pubmed: 16475518google scholar: lookup
  5. MacLachlan N.J., Dubovnik E.J. Herpesvirales in Fenner’s Veterinary Virology. 5th ed. Academic Press; Cambridge, MA, USA: 2017. pp. 189–216. Chapter 9.
    doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-800946-8.00009-Xgoogle scholar: lookup
  6. Mekonnen A, Eshetu A, Gizaw D. Equine herpesvirus 1 and/or 4 in working equids: Seroprevalence and risk factors in North Shewa Zone, Ethiopia. Ethiop. Vet. J. 2017;21:28–39.
    doi: 10.4314/evj.v21i2.3google scholar: lookup
  7. Yildirim Y, Yilmaz V, Kirmizigul AH. Equine herpes virus type 1 (EHV-1) and 4 (EHV-4) infections in horses and donkeys in northeastern Turkey.. Iran J Vet Res 2015 Fall;16(4):341-4.
    pmc: PMC4782672pubmed: 27175200
  8. Badenhorst M, Page P, Ganswindt A, Laver P, Guthrie A, Schulman M. Detection of equine herpesvirus-4 and physiological stress patterns in young Thoroughbreds consigned to a South African auction sale.. BMC Vet Res 2015 Jun 2;11:126.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-015-0443-4pmc: PMC4450643pubmed: 26033323google scholar: lookup
  9. Carlson JK, Traub-Dargatz JL, Lunn DP, Morley PS, Kohler A, Kasper K, Landolt GA, Barnett C, Lunn KF. Equine viral respiratory pathogen surveillance at horse shows and sales. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2013;33:229–237.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2012.06.006google scholar: lookup
  10. Gilkerson JR, Teague N, Whalley JM, Love DN. A prospective cohort study of upper respiratory tract disease in one- and two-year-old racehorses. Serological evaluation of the role of equine herpesviruses 1 and 4 (EHV-1 and EHV-4) in respiratory disease. Aust. Equine Vet. 1999;17:76–81.
  11. Pusterla N, Kass PH, Mapes S, Johnson C, Barnett DC, Vaala W, Gutierrez C, McDaniel R, Whitehead B, Manning J. Surveillance programme for important equine infectious respiratory pathogens in the USA.. Vet Rec 2011 Jul 2;169(1):12.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.d2157pubmed: 21676986google scholar: lookup
  12. Temesgen T, Getachew Y, Negussie H. Molecular Identification of Equine Herpesvirus 1, 2, and 5 in Equids with Signs of Respiratory Disease in Central Ethiopia.. Vet Med (Auckl) 2021;12:337-345.
    doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S339042pmc: PMC8694401pubmed: 34956854google scholar: lookup
  13. Pusterla N, Bain F, James K, Mapes S, Kenelty K, Barnett DC, Gaughan E, Craig B, Chappell DE, Vaala W. Frequency of molecular detection of equine herpesvirus-4 in nasal secretions of 3028 horses with upper airway infection.. Vet Rec 2017 Jun 17;180(24):593.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.104240pubmed: 28386031google scholar: lookup
  14. Ploszay G, Rola J, Larska M, Zmudzinski JF. First report on equine herpesvirus type 4 isolation in Poland--evaluation of diagnostic tools.. Pol J Vet Sci 2013;16(3):493-500.
    doi: 10.2478/pjvs-2013-0069pubmed: 24195284google scholar: lookup
  15. Diallo IS, Hewitson G, Wright LL, Kelly MA, Rodwell BJ, Corney BG. Multiplex real-time PCR for the detection and differentiation of equid herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) and equid herpesvirus 4 (EHV-4).. Vet Microbiol 2007 Jul 20;123(1-3):93-103.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.02.004pubmed: 17346907google scholar: lookup
  16. Hartley CA, Wilks CR, Studdert MJ, Gilkerson JR. Comparison of antibody detection assays for the diagnosis of equine herpesvirus 1 and 4 infections in horses.. Am J Vet Res 2005 May;66(5):921-8.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2005.66.921pubmed: 15934623google scholar: lookup
  17. Wang L, Raidal SL, Pizzirani A, Wilcox GE. Detection of respiratory herpesviruses in foals and adult horses determined by nested multiplex PCR.. Vet Microbiol 2007 Mar 31;121(1-2):18-28.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.11.009pubmed: 17208393google scholar: lookup
  18. OIE Guidelines. [(accessed on 17 August 2021)]. Available online: https://www.oie.int/app/uploads/2021/03/a-hhp-handbook-oct-2018.pdf.
  19. Windsor P. How to implement farm biosecurity: The role of government and private sector. Proceedings of the 30th Conference of the OIE Regional Commission for Asia, the Far East and Oceania; Putrajaya, Malaysia. 20–24 November 2017.
    doi: 10.20506/TT.2761google scholar: lookup
  20. Ataseven VS, Dağalp SB, Güzel M, Başaran Z, Tan MT, Geraghty B. Prevalence of equine herpesvirus-1 and equine herpesvirus-4 infections in equidae species in Turkey as determined by ELISA and multiplex nested PCR.. Res Vet Sci 2009 Apr;86(2):339-44.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2008.06.001pubmed: 18649902google scholar: lookup
  21. Dayaram A, Seeber PA, Greenwood AD. Environmental Detection and Potential Transmission of Equine Herpesviruses.. Pathogens 2021 Apr 1;10(4).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10040423pmc: PMC8066653pubmed: 33916280google scholar: lookup
  22. Goehring LS, Landolt GA, Morley PS. Detection and management of an outbreak of equine herpesvirus type 1 infection and associated neurological disease in a veterinary teaching hospital.. J Vet Intern Med 2010 Sep-Oct;24(5):1176-83.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0558.xpubmed: 20584137google scholar: lookup
  23. Pritchard JC, Lindberg AC, Main DC, Whay HR. Assessment of the welfare of working horses, mules and donkeys, using health and behaviour parameters.. Prev Vet Med 2005 Jul 12;69(3-4):265-83.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2005.02.002pubmed: 15907574google scholar: lookup
  24. Nielsen SS, Alvarez J, Bicout DJ, Calistri P, Canali E, Drewe JA, Garin-Bastuji B, Gonzales Rojas JL, Gortázar C, Herskin M, Michel V, Miranda Chueca MÁ, Roberts HC, Padalino B, Pasquali P, Spoolder H, Ståhl K, Calvo AV, Viltrop A, Winckler C, Carvelli A, Paillot R, Broglia A, Kohnle L, Baldinelli F, Van der Stede Y. Assessment of listing and categorisation of animal diseases within the framework of the Animal Health Law (Regulation (EU) No 2016/429): infection with Equine Herpesvirus-1.. EFSA J 2022 Jan;20(1):e07036.
    doi: 10.2903/j.efsa.2022.7036pmc: PMC8753587pubmed: 35035581google scholar: lookup
  25. Lunn DP, Davis-Poynter N, Flaminio MJ, Horohov DW, Osterrieder K, Pusterla N, Townsend HG. Equine herpesvirus-1 consensus statement.. J Vet Intern Med 2009 May-Jun;23(3):450-61.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2009.0304.xpubmed: 19645832google scholar: lookup
  26. Aguiar DM, Cavalcante GT, Lara M, Villalobos EMC, Cunha EMS, Okuda LH, Stéfano Ed, Nassar AFdC, Souza GO, Vasconcellos SA. Seroprevalence of viral and bacterial agents in equids from Monte Negro Municipality, State of Rondônia. Braz. J. Vet. Res. Anim. Sci. 2008;45:269–276.
    doi: 10.11606/issn.1678-4456.bjvras.2008.26685google scholar: lookup
  27. De Souz HLMdCC, Torelli CS, Cunha EMS, Villalobos EMC, Cunha MS, Bello ACPP, Cunha AP, Reis JKP, Leite RC, Mori E. Serological survey of equine herpesvirus infection in Minas Gerais state. Braz. J. Vet. Res. Anim. Sci. 2010;47:352–356.
  28. Chenchev I, Rusenova N, Sandev N. Seroepidemiological studies of donkeys’ blood for detection of some virus infections on ungulates. Trakia J. Sci. 2011;9:82–86.
  29. Getachew M, Alemayehu F, Chala C, Amare B, Kassa D, Burden F, Wernery R, Wernery U. A cross-sectional sero-survey of some infectious diseases of working equids in Central Ethiopia. J. Vet. Med. Anim. Health. 2014;6:231–238.
  30. Abdelgawad A, Hermes R, Damiani A, Lamglait B, Czirják GÁ, East M, Aschenborn O, Wenker C, Kasem S, Osterrieder N, Greenwood AD. Comprehensive Serology Based on a Peptide ELISA to Assess the Prevalence of Closely Related Equine Herpesviruses in Zoo and Wild Animals.. PLoS One 2015;10(9):e0138370.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138370pmc: PMC4574707pubmed: 26378452google scholar: lookup
  31. Pusterla N, Mapes S, Akana N, Barnett C, MacKenzie C, Gaughan E, Craig B, Chappell D, Vaala W. Prevalence factors associated with equine herpesvirus type 1 infection in equids with upper respiratory tract infection and/or acute onset of neurological signs from 2008 to 2014.. Vet Rec 2016 Jan 16;178(3):70.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.103424pubmed: 26607427google scholar: lookup
  32. Wegdan H, Intisar K, Shaza M, Algezoli O, Ballal A, Ihsan H, Sahar M, Baraa A, Manal H, Muna E. Serological Detection of Equine Herpes Virus (EHV) Type 1 and 4 in Sudan. Br. Microbiol. Res. J. 2016;14:1–6.
    doi: 10.9734/BMRJ/2016/25803google scholar: lookup
  33. Ali S, Mohammadi G. Detection of equine herpesvirus-1 and equine herpesvirus-4 in mules and donkeys by real time PCR. Vet. Pract. 2016;17:160–163.
  34. Negussie H, Gizaw D, Tessema TS, Nauwynck HJ. Equine Herpesvirus-1 Myeloencephalopathy, an Emerging Threat of Working Equids in Ethiopia.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017 Apr;64(2):389-397.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.12377pubmed: 26010868google scholar: lookup
  35. Negussie H, Gizaw D, Tesfaw L, Li Y, Oguma K, Sentsui H, Tessema TS, Nauwynck HJ. Detection of Equine Herpesvirus (EHV) -1, -2, -4 and -5 in Ethiopian Equids with and without Respiratory Problems and Genetic Characterization of EHV-2 and EHV-5 Strains.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017 Dec;64(6):1970-1978.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.12601pubmed: 28102009google scholar: lookup
  36. Bolfa P, Jeon I, Loftis A, Leslie T, Marchi S, Sithole F, Beck C, Lecollinet S, Zientara S, Hans A, Issel CJ. Detection of West Nile Virus and other common equine viruses in three locations from the Leeward Islands, West Indies.. Acta Trop 2017 Oct;174:24-28.
    doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.06.023pubmed: 28648789google scholar: lookup
  37. De Souza Hunold Lara MDC C, Villalobos EMC, Cunha EMS, De Oliveira JV, de Castro Nassar AF, Silva LMP, Okuda L, Nogueira AHC, Cunha MS, Marques EC. Occurrence of viral diseases in donkeys (Equus asinus) in São Paulo State, Brazil. Braz. J. Vet. Res. Anim. Sci. 2017;54:154.
    doi: 10.11606/issn.1678-4456.bjvras.2017.121241google scholar: lookup
  38. Azab W, Bedair S, Abdelgawad A, Eschke K, Farag GK, Abdel-Raheim A, Greenwood AD, Osterrieder N, Ali AAH. Detection of equid herpesviruses among different Arabian horse populations in Egypt.. Vet Med Sci 2019 Aug;5(3):361-371.
    doi: 10.1002/vms3.176pmc: PMC7155215pubmed: 31149784google scholar: lookup
  39. Matsumura T, Sugiura T, Imagawa H, Fukunaga Y, Kamada M. Epizootiological aspects of type 1 and type 4 equine herpesvirus infections among horse populations.. J Vet Med Sci 1992 Apr;54(2):207-11.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.54.207pubmed: 1318750google scholar: lookup
  40. Pavulraj S, Eschke K, Theisen J, Westhoff S, Reimers G, Andreotti S, Osterrieder N, Azab W. Equine Herpesvirus Type 4 (EHV-4) Outbreak in Germany: Virological, Serological, and Molecular Investigations.. Pathogens 2021 Jun 25;10(7).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10070810pmc: PMC8308676pubmed: 34202127google scholar: lookup
  41. European Parliament. The EU’s Organic Food Market: Facts and Rules. European Parliament 2018; pp. 1–6.
  42. Spada V, Ferranti P, Chianese L, Salimei E, Addeo F, Picariello G. Antibacterial potential of donkey's milk disclosed by untargeted proteomics.. J Proteomics 2021 Jan 16;231:104007.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jprot.2020.104007pubmed: 33038512google scholar: lookup
  43. Duval E, Keyserlingk MAGV, Lecorps B. Organic Dairy Cattle: Do European Union Regulations Promote Animal Welfare?. Animals (Basel) 2020 Oct 1;10(10).
    doi: 10.3390/ani10101786pmc: PMC7600357pubmed: 33019666google scholar: lookup
  44. Sutherland MA, Webster J, Sutherland I. Animal Health and Welfare Issues Facing Organic Production Systems.. Animals (Basel) 2013 Oct 31;3(4):1021-35.
    doi: 10.3390/ani3041021pmc: PMC4494360pubmed: 26479750google scholar: lookup
  45. Gianfaldoni C, Barlozzari G, Mancini S, Domenico E, Maestrini M, Perrucci S. Parasitological investigation in an organic dairy donkey farm. Large Anim. Rev. 2020;26:25–30.
  46. Conte F, Panebianco A. Potential Hazards Associated with Raw Donkey Milk Consumption: A Review.. Int J Food Sci 2019;2019:5782974.
    doi: 10.1155/2019/5782974pmc: PMC6582899pubmed: 31275956google scholar: lookup
  47. Matthews JB. Facing the threat of equine parasitic disease.. Equine Vet J 2011 Mar;43(2):126-32.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00356.xpubmed: 21592204google scholar: lookup
  48. Foster N, Elsheikha HM. The immune response to parasitic helminths of veterinary importance and its potential manipulation for future vaccine control strategies.. Parasitol Res 2012 May;110(5):1587-99.
    doi: 10.1007/s00436-012-2832-ypubmed: 22314781google scholar: lookup
  49. Mabbott NA. The Influence of Parasite Infections on Host Immunity to Co-infection With Other Pathogens.. Front Immunol 2018;9:2579.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2018.02579pmc: PMC6237250pubmed: 30467504google scholar: lookup
  50. Afify AF, Ahmed BM, Salem SA, El-Sanousi AA, Shalaby MA. First Isolation and identification of EHV-4 during abortion outbreak among Arabian horses in Egypt reflects an alteration in pathogenic potentiality of EHV-4. J. Virol. Sci. 2017;2:92–101.
  51. Smith KC, Blunden AS, Whitwell KE, Dunn KA, Wales AD. A survey of equine abortion, stillbirth and neonatal death in the UK from 1988 to 1997.. Equine Vet J 2003 Jul;35(5):496-501.
    doi: 10.2746/042516403775600578pubmed: 12875329google scholar: lookup
  52. Laugier C, Foucher N, Sevin C, Leon A, Tapprest J. A 24-year retrospective study of equine abortion in Normandy (France). J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2011;31:116–123.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2010.12.012google scholar: lookup
  53. Ji C, Cai S, Lu G, Zhang G. Challenges to develop an equine herpesvirus vaccine in China.. J Infect 2020 May;80(5):578-606.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jinf.2020.01.013pubmed: 32017972google scholar: lookup
  54. Foote CE, Love DN, Gilkerson JR, Wellington JE, Whalley JM. EHV-1 and EHV-4 infection in vaccinated mares and their foals.. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2006 May 15;111(1-2):41-6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2006.01.007pubmed: 16513181google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 2 times.
  1. Badr C, Souiai O, Arbi M, El Behi I, Essaied MS, Khosrof I, Benkahla A, Chabchoub A, Ghram A. Epidemiological and Phylogeographic Study of Equid Herpesviruses in Tunisia.. Pathogens 2022 Sep 5;11(9).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens11091016pubmed: 36145448google scholar: lookup
  2. Pusterla N, James K, Barnum S, Bain F, Barnett DC, Chappell D, Gaughan E, Craig B, Schneider C, Vaala W. Frequency of Detection and Prevalence Factors Associated with Common Respiratory Pathogens in Equids with Acute Onset of Fever and/or Respiratory Signs (2008-2021).. Pathogens 2022 Jul 2;11(7).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens11070759pubmed: 35890002google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.