FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Vaccines (Basel) / Clostridial Diseases of Horses: A Review.
Vaccines2022; 10(2); doi: 10.3390/vaccines10020318

Clostridial Diseases of Horses: A Review.

Abstract: The clostridial diseases of horses can be divided into three major groups: enteric/enterotoxic, histotoxic, and neurotoxic. The main enteric/enterotoxic diseases include those produced by Clostridium perfringens type C and Clostridioides difficile, both of which are characterized by enterocolitis. The main histotoxic diseases are gas gangrene, Tyzzer disease, and infectious necrotic hepatitis. Gas gangrene is produced by one or more of the following microorganisms: C. perfringens type A, Clostridium septicum, Paeniclostridium sordellii, and Clostridium novyi type A, and it is characterized by necrotizing cellulitis and/or myositis. Tyzzer disease is produced by Clostridium piliforme and is mainly characterized by multifocal necrotizing hepatitis. Infectious necrotic hepatitis is produced by Clostridium novyi type B and is characterized by focal necrotizing hepatitis. The main neurotoxic clostridial diseases are tetanus and botulism, which are produced by Clostridium tetani and Clostridium botulinum, respectively. Tetanus is characterized by spastic paralysis and botulism by flaccid paralysis. Neither disease present with specific gross or microscopic lesions. The pathogenesis of clostridial diseases involves the production of toxins. Confirming a diagnosis of some of the clostridial diseases of horses is sometimes difficult, mainly because some agents can be present in tissues of normal animals. This paper reviews the main clostridial diseases of horses.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2022-02-17 PubMed ID: 35214776PubMed Central: PMC8876495DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10020318Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This study examines the three primary categories of clostridial illnesses in horses: diseases affecting the digestive system (enteric diseases), tissue infections (histotoxic diseases), and diseases affecting the nervous system (neurotoxic diseases). They vary in terms of causes, symptoms and diagnosis.

Categorisation of Clostridial Diseases in Horses

  • The paper organises clostridial diseases in horses into three categories, namely enteric/enterotoxic, histotoxic, and neurotoxic.
  • The enteric/enterotoxic diseases (intestinal diseases) are primarily caused by Clostridium perfringens type C and Clostridium difficile. Both diseases are characterized by inflammation and infection of the intestinal tract (enterocolitis).

Explanation of Histotoxic Diseases

  • The histotoxic diseases (tissue infections) covered in the paper are gas gangrene, Tyzzer disease, and infectious necrotic hepatitis.
  • Gas gangrene is caused by Clostridium perfringens type A, Clostridium novyi, and Clostridium septicum. This condition is characterized by necrotizing cellulitis and/or myositis, referring to skin infection and muscle inflammation respectively.
  • Tyzzer disease is caused predominantly by Clostridium piliforme. This infection causes multifocal necrotizing hepatitis – multiple areas of death and decay in liver tissue.
  • Infectious necrotic hepatitis is caused by Clostridium perfringens type B, characterized by focal necrotizing hepatitis – localized liver tissue death.

Outline of Neurotoxic Diseases

  • The neurotoxic clostridial diseases primarily include tetanus and botulism.
  • Tetanus is caused by Clostridium tetani, resulting in spastic paralysis, i.e., severe muscle stiffness and spasms.
  • Botulism, on the other hand, is caused by Clostridium botulinum, leading to flaccid paralysis, indicated by muscle weakness or loss of muscle function.
  • Both these diseases are tricky to diagnose as there are no clear anatomical or microscopic changes associated with them.

Clostridial Diseases Pathogenesis

  • These diseases share a common feature of producing a variety of toxins leading to different symptoms.

Diagnosis of Clostridial Diseases

  • Establishing a definite diagnosis of clostridial diseases in horses can be challenging, mainly due to the fact that some causative agents can be present in healthy animals too. Consequently, their presence doesn’t always equate to disease.

Cite This Article

APA
Uzal FA, Navarro MA, Asin J, Henderson EE. (2022). Clostridial Diseases of Horses: A Review. Vaccines (Basel), 10(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10020318

Publication

Vaccines
ISSN: 2076-393X
NlmUniqueID: 101629355
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 10
Issue: 2

Researcher Affiliations

Uzal, Francisco A
  • California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, San Bernardino Lab, University of California-Davis, San Bwernardino, CA 92408, USA.
Navarro, Mauricio A
  • Instituto de Patología Animal, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia 5110566, Chile.
Asin, Javier
  • California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, San Bernardino Lab, University of California-Davis, San Bwernardino, CA 92408, USA.
Henderson, Eileen E
  • California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, San Bernardino Lab, University of California-Davis, San Bwernardino, CA 92408, USA.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 108 references
  1. Prescott J.F., MacInnes J.I., Wu A.K.K.. Taxonomic Relationships among the Clostridia. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016; pp. 1–5.
  2. Rood J.I.. General Physiological and Virulence Properties of the Pathogenic Clostridia. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016; pp. 7–12.
  3. Uzal F.A., Navarro M.A., Li J., Freedman J.C., Shrestha A., McClane B.A.. Comparative Pathogenesis of Enteric Clostridial Infections in Humans and Animals. Anaerobe 2018;53:11–20.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2018.06.002pmc: PMC6281819pubmed: 29883627google scholar: lookup
  4. Rood J.I., Adams V., Lacey J., Lyras D., McClane B.A., Melville S.B., Moore R.J., Popoff M.R., Sarker M.R., Songer J.G.. Expansion of the Clostridium perfringens Toxin-Based Typing Scheme. Anaerobe 2018;53:5–10.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2018.04.011pmc: PMC6195859pubmed: 29866424google scholar: lookup
  5. Fernandez-Miyakawa M.E., Fisher D.J., Poon R., Sayeed S., Adams V., Rood J.I., McClane B.A., Uzal F.A.. Both Epsilon-Toxin and Beta-Toxin Are Important for the Lethal Properties of Clostridium Perfringens Type B Isolates in the Mouse Intravenous Injection Model. Infect. Immun. 2007;75:1443–1452.
    doi: 10.1128/IAI.01672-06pmc: PMC1828578pubmed: 17210666google scholar: lookup
  6. Uzal F.A., Songer J.G.. Infections by Clostridium Perfringens Type B. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016; pp. 139–142.
  7. Munday J.S., Bentall H., Aberdein D., Navarro M., Uzal F.A., Brown S.. Death of a Neonatal Lamb Due to Clostridium Perfringens Type B in New Zealand. N. Z. Vet. J. 2020;68:242–246.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2019.1706660pubmed: 31852382google scholar: lookup
  8. Stubbings D.P.. Clostridium Perfringens Enterotoxaemia in Two Young Horses. Vet. Rec. 1990;127:431.
    pubmed: 2264247
  9. Uzal F.A., Songer J.G.. Diagnosis of Clostridium Perfringens Intestinal Infections in Sheep and Goats. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2008;20:253–265.
    doi: 10.1177/104063870802000301pubmed: 18460610google scholar: lookup
  10. Diab S.S., Kinde H., Moore J., Shahriar M.F., Odani J., Anthenill L., Songer G., Uzal F.A.. Pathology of Clostridium Perfringens Type C Enterotoxemia in Horses. Vet. Pathol. 2012;49:255–263.
    doi: 10.1177/0300985811404710pubmed: 21502373google scholar: lookup
  11. Theoret J.R., McClane B.A.. Toxins of Clostridium perfringens. In: Uzal F.A., Songer J.G., Prescott J.F., Popoff M.R., editors. Clostridial Diseases of Animals. Wiley Blackwell; Ames, IA, USA: 2016. pp. 45–69.
  12. Diab S.S.. Diseases Produced by Clostridium perfringens Type C. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016; pp. 143–155.
  13. Uzal F.A., Arroyo L.G., Navarro M.A., Gomez D.E., Asín J., Henderson E.. Bacterial and Viral Enterocolitis in Horses: A Review. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2021:10406387211057469.
    doi: 10.1177/10406387211057469pmc: PMC9254067pubmed: 34763560google scholar: lookup
  14. Mendonça F.S., Navarro M.A., Uzal F.A.. The Comparative Pathology of Enterocolitis Due to Clostridium perfringens Type C, Clostridioides difficile, Paeniclostridium sordellii, Salmonella enterica Subspecies Enterica Serovar Typhimurium and Non-Steroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs in Horses. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2021:10406387211041091.
    doi: 10.1177/10406387211041091pmc: PMC9254063pubmed: 34455808google scholar: lookup
  15. Mehdizadeh-Gohari I., Parreira V.R., Nowell V.J., Nicholson V.M., Oliphant K., Prescott J.F.. A Novel Pore-Forming Toxin in Type A Clostridium Perfringens Is Associated with Both Fatal Canine Hemorrhagic Gastroenteritis and Fatal Foal Necrotizing Enterocolitis. PLoS ONE 2015;10:e0122684.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122684pmc: PMC4390311pubmed: 25853427google scholar: lookup
  16. Mehdizadeh-Gohari I., Parreira V.R., Timoney J.F., Fallon L., Slovis N., Prescott J.F.. NetF-Positive Clostridium Perfringens in Neonatal Foal Necrotising Enteritis in Kentucky. Vet. Rec. 2016;178:216.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.103606pubmed: 26829965google scholar: lookup
  17. Mehdizadeh-Gohari I.M., Parreira V.R., Prescott J.F.. NetF-Associated Necrotizing Enteritis of Foals and Canine Hemorrhagic Gastroenteritis. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016; pp. 117–122.
  18. Mehdizadeh-Gohari I., Unterer S., Whitehead A.E., Prescott J.F.. NetF-Producing Clostridium Perfringens and Its Associated Diseases in Dogs and Foals. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2020;32:230–238.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638720904714pmc: PMC7081511pubmed: 32081091google scholar: lookup
  19. Herholz C., Miserez R., Nicolet J., Frey J., Popoff M., Gibert M., Gerber H., Straub R.. Prevalence of Beta2-Toxigenic Clostridium Perfringens in Horses with Intestinal Disorders. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1999;37:358–361.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.37.2.358-361.1999pmc: PMC84307pubmed: 9889218google scholar: lookup
  20. Diab S.S., Songer G., Uzal F.A.. Clostridium difficile Infection in Horses: A Review. Vet. Microbiol. 2013;167:42–49.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.03.032pubmed: 23642413google scholar: lookup
  21. Weese J.S., Toxopeus L., Arroyo L.. Clostridium difficile Associated Diarrhoea in Horses within the Community: Predictors, Clinical Presentation and Outcome. Equine Vet. J. 2006;38:185–188.
    doi: 10.2746/042516406776563369pubmed: 16536390google scholar: lookup
  22. Madewell B.R., Tang Y.J., Jang S., Madigan J.E., Hirsh D.C., Gumerlock P.H., Silva J.. Apparent Outbreaks of Clostridium difficile-Associated Diarrhea in Horses in a Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 1995;7:343–346.
    doi: 10.1177/104063879500700308pubmed: 7578449google scholar: lookup
  23. Weese J.S.. Clostridium (Clostridioides) difficile in Animals. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2020;32:213–221.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638719899081pmc: PMC7081495pubmed: 31904312google scholar: lookup
  24. Båverud V., Gustafsson A., Franklin A., Aspán A., Gunnarsson A.. Clostridium difficile: Prevalence in Horses and Environment, and Antimicrobial Susceptibility. Equine Vet. J. 2003;35:465–471.
    doi: 10.2746/042516403775600505pubmed: 12875324google scholar: lookup
  25. Medina-Torres C.E., Weese J.S., Staempfli H.R.. Prevalence of Clostridium difficile in Horses. Vet. Microbiol. 2011;152:212–215.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2011.04.012pubmed: 21570780google scholar: lookup
  26. Weese J.S., Staempfli H.R., Prescott J.F.. A Prospective Study of the Roles of Clostridium difficile and Enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens in Equine Diarrhoea. Equine Vet. J. 2001;33:403–409.
    doi: 10.2746/042516401776249534pubmed: 11469775google scholar: lookup
  27. Schoster A., Staempfli H.R., Arroyo L.G., Reid-Smith R.J., Janecko N., Shewen P.E., Weese J.S.. Longitudinal Study of Clostridium difficile and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Escherichia Coli in Healthy Horses in a Community Setting. Vet. Microbiol. 2012;159:364–370.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.04.006pubmed: 22554764google scholar: lookup
  28. Kuehne S.A., Cartman S.T., Minton N.P.. Both, Toxin A and Toxin B, Are Important in Clostridium difficile Infection. Gut Microbes 2011;2:252–255.
    doi: 10.4161/gmic.2.4.16109pmc: PMC3260544pubmed: 21804353google scholar: lookup
  29. Diab S.S., Uzal F.A., Songer J.G.. Diseases Produced by Clostridium difficile. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016; pp. 177–195.
  30. Thean S., Elliott B., Riley T.V.. Clostridium difficile in Horses in Australia—A Preliminary Study. J. Med. Microbiol. 2011;60:1188–1192.
    doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.030908-0pubmed: 21436371google scholar: lookup
  31. Diab S.S., Rodriguez-Bertos A., Uzal F.A.. Pathology and Diagnostic Criteria of Clostridium difficile Enteric Infection in Horses. Vet. Pathol. 2013;50:1028–1036.
    doi: 10.1177/0300985813489039pubmed: 23686768google scholar: lookup
  32. Keel M.K., Songer J.G.. The Comparative Pathology of Clostridium difficile-Associated Disease. Vet. Pathol. 2006;43:225–240.
    doi: 10.1354/vp.43-3-225pubmed: 16672570google scholar: lookup
  33. Post K.W., Jost B.H., Songer J.G.. Evaluation of a Test for Clostridium difficile Toxins A and B for the Diagnosis of Neonatal Swine Enteritis. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2002;14:258–259.
    doi: 10.1177/104063870201400314pubmed: 12033686google scholar: lookup
  34. Fedorko D.P., Williams E.C.. Use of Cycloserine-Cefoxitin-Fructose Agar and L-Proline-Aminopeptidase (PRO Discs) in the Rapid Identification of Clostridium difficile. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1997;35:1258–1259.
    doi: 10.1128/jcm.35.5.1258-1259.1997pmc: PMC232741pubmed: 9114419google scholar: lookup
  35. Arroyo L.G., Gomez D.E., Martins C.. Equine Duodenitis-Proximal Jejunitis: A Review. Can. Vet. J. 2018;59:510–517.
    pmc: PMC5901841pubmed: 29904204
  36. Arroyo L.G., Costa M.C., Guest B.B., Plattner B.L., Lillie B.N., Weese J.S.. Duodenitis-Proximal Jejunitis in Horses After Experimental Administration of Clostridium difficile Toxins. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2017;31:158–163.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.14624pmc: PMC5259639pubmed: 27906466google scholar: lookup
  37. Nyaoke A.C., Navarro M.A., Fresneda K., Diab S.S., Moore J., Lyras D., Awad M., Uzal F.A.. Paeniclostridium (Clostridium) sordellii-Associated Enterocolitis in 7 Horses. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2020;32:239–245.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638720903738pmc: PMC7081492pubmed: 32052697google scholar: lookup
  38. Peek S.F., Semrad S.D., Perkins G.A.. Clostridial Myonecrosis in Horses (37 Cases 1985–2000). Equine Vet. J. 2003;35:86–92.
    doi: 10.2746/042516403775467513pubmed: 12553469google scholar: lookup
  39. Silva R.O.S., Uzal F.A., Oliveira C.A., Lobato F.C.F.. Gas Gangrene (Malignant Edema). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016; pp. 243–254.
  40. Sacco S.C., Ortega J., Navarro M.A., Fresneda K.C., Anderson M., Woods L.W., Moore J., Uzal F.A.. Clostridium sordellii-Associated Gas Gangrene in Eight Horses, 1998–2019. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2019;32:246–251.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638719877844pmc: PMC7081493pubmed: 31585515google scholar: lookup
  41. Breuhaus B.A., Brown C.M., Scott E.A., Ainsworth D.M., Taylor R.F.. Clostridial Muscle Infections Following Intramuscular Injections in the Horse. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 1983;3:42–46.
    doi: 10.1016/S0737-0806(83)80003-3google scholar: lookup
  42. Choi Y.-K., Kang M.-S., Yoo H.-S., Lee D.-Y., Lee H.-C., Kim D.-Y.. Clostridium perfringens Type A Myonecrosis in a Horse in Korea. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 2003;65:1245–1247.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.65.1245pubmed: 14665756google scholar: lookup
  43. Coloe P.J., Ireland L., Vaudrey J.C.. Clostridium fallax as a Cause of Gas-Oedema Disease in a Horse. J. Comp. Pathol. 1983;93:597–601.
    doi: 10.1016/0021-9975(83)90067-1pubmed: 6643759google scholar: lookup
  44. Hagemoser W.A., Hoffman L.J., Lundvall R.L.. Clostridium chauvoei Infection in a Horse. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1980;176:631–633.
    pubmed: 7372536
  45. Perdrizet J.A., Callihan D.R., Rebhun W.C., Shin S.J.. Successful Management of Malignant Edema Caused by Clostridium septicum in a Horse. Cornell Vet. 1987;77:328–338.
    pubmed: 3446445
  46. Jeanes L., Magdesian K., Madigan J.. Clostridial Myonecrosis in Horses. Compend. Contin. Educ. Pract. Vet. 2001;23:577.
  47. Rebhun W.C., Shin S.J., King J.M., Baum K.H., Patten V.. Malignant Edema in Horses. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1985;187:732–736.
    pubmed: 4055491
  48. Vengust M., Arroyo L.G., Weese J.S., Baird J.D.. Preliminary Evidence for Dormant Clostridial Spores in Equine Skeletal Muscle. Equine Vet. J. 2003;35:514–516.
    doi: 10.2746/042516403775600569pubmed: 12875332google scholar: lookup
  49. Hang’ombe B.M., Isogai E., Lungu J., Mubita C., Nambota A., Kirisawa R., Kimura K., Isogai H.. Detection and Characterization of Clostridium Species in Soil of Zambia. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2000;23:277–284.
    doi: 10.1016/S0147-9571(99)00078-8pubmed: 11038129google scholar: lookup
  50. Seifert H.S., Bader K., Cyplik J., González Salinas J., Roth F., Salinas Meléndez J.A., Sukop U.. Environment, Incidence, Aetiology, Epizootiology and Immunoprophylaxis of Soil-Borne Diseases in North-East Mexico. Zent. Vet. Reihe B. 1996;43:593–605.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0450.1996.tb00358.xpubmed: 9011155google scholar: lookup
  51. Uzal F.A., Freedman J.C., Shrestha A., Theoret J.R., Garcia J., Awad M.M., Adams V., Moore R.J., Rood J.I., McClane B.A.. Towards an Understanding of the Role of Clostridium perfringens Toxins in Human and Animal Disease. Future Microbiol. 2014;9:361–377.
    doi: 10.2217/fmb.13.168pmc: PMC4155746pubmed: 24762309google scholar: lookup
  52. Sunagawa K., Sugitani M.. Post-Mortem Detection of Bacteremia Using Pairs of Blood Culture Samples. Leg. Med. 2017;24:92–97.
    doi: 10.1016/j.legalmed.2016.12.009pubmed: 28081798google scholar: lookup
  53. Parish S., Valberg S.. Clostridial Myonecrosis. In: Smith B., editor. Large Animal Internal Medicine. Mosby Elsevier; St. Louis, MO, USA: 2019. pp. 1432–1434.
  54. Ortega J., Daft B., Assis R.A., Kinde H., Anthenill L., Odani J., Uzal F.A.. Infection of Internal Umbilical Remnant in Foals by Clostridium sordellii. Vet. Pathol. 2007;44:269–275.
    doi: 10.1354/vp.44-3-269pubmed: 17491067google scholar: lookup
  55. Farias L.D., Azevedo M.D.S., Trost M.E., De La Côrte F.D., Irigoyen L.F., de Vargas A.C.. Acute Myonecrosis in Horse Caused by Clostridium novyi Type A. Braz. J. Microbiol. 2014;45:221–224.
    doi: 10.1590/S1517-83822014005000023pmc: PMC4059300pubmed: 24948935google scholar: lookup
  56. Stevens D.L.. The Pathogenesis of Clostridial Myonecrosis. Int. J. Med. Microbiol. 2000;290:497–502.
    doi: 10.1016/S1438-4221(00)80074-0pubmed: 11111933google scholar: lookup
  57. Caplan E.S., Kluge R.M.. Gas Gangrene: Review of 34 Cases. Arch. Intern. Med. 1976;136:788–791.
    doi: 10.1001/archinte.1976.03630070036011pubmed: 180918google scholar: lookup
  58. Abreu C.C., Edwards E.E., Edwards J.F., Gibbons P.M., Leal de Araújo J., Rech R.R., Uzal F.A.. Blackleg in Cattle: A Case Report of Fetal Infection and a Literature Review. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2017;29:612–621.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638717713796pubmed: 28599620google scholar: lookup
  59. Abreu C.C., Blanchard P.C., Adaska J.M., Moeller R.B., Anderson M., Navarro M.A., Diab S.S., Uzal F.A.. Pathology of Blackleg in Cattle in California, 1991–2015. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2018;30:894–901.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638718808567pmc: PMC6505837pubmed: 30358517google scholar: lookup
  60. Aldape M.J., Bryant A.E., Stevens D.L.. Clostridium sordellii Infection: Epidemiology, Clinical Findings, and Current Perspectives on Diagnosis and Treatment. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2006;43:1436–1446.
    doi: 10.1086/508866pubmed: 17083018google scholar: lookup
  61. Aronoff D.M.. Clostridium novyi, sordellii, and tetani: Mechanisms of Disease. Anaerobe 2013;24:98–101.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2013.08.009pubmed: 24036420google scholar: lookup
  62. Hatheway C.L.. Toxigenic Clostridia. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 1990;3:66–98.
    doi: 10.1128/CMR.3.1.66pmc: PMC358141pubmed: 2404569google scholar: lookup
  63. Popoff M.R., Bouvet P.. Clostridial Toxins. Future Microbiol. 2009;4:1021–1064.
    doi: 10.2217/fmb.09.72pubmed: 19824793google scholar: lookup
  64. Almeida e Macedo J.T.S., Pires P.S., Pinheiro E.E.G., de Oliveira R.S., Silva R.O.S., Lobato F.C.F., Pedroso P.M.O.. Malignant Edema Caused by Clostridium chauvoei in a Horse. Acta Sci. Vet. 2013;41:24.
  65. Raymundo D.L., Pavarini S.P., Bezerra Junior P.S., Antoniassi N.A.B., Bandarra P.M., Bercht B.S., Gomes M.J.P., Driemeier D.. Mionecrose Aguda Por Clostridium septicum Em Equinos. Pesqui. Vet. Bras. 2010;30:637–640.
    doi: 10.1590/S0100-736X2010000800005google scholar: lookup
  66. Bryant A.E., Bayer C.R., Aldape M.J., Wallace R.J., Titball R.W., Stevens D.L.. Clostridium perfringens Phospholipase C-Induced Platelet/Leukocyte Interactions Impede Neutrophil Diapedesis. J. Med. Microbiol. 2006;55:495–504.
    doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.46390-0pubmed: 16585634google scholar: lookup
  67. Garofolo G., Galante D., Serrecchia L., Buonavoglia D., Fasanella A.. Development of a Real Time PCR Taqman Assay Based on the TPI Gene for Simultaneous Identification of Clostridium chauvoei and Clostridium septicum. J. Microbiol. Methods. 2011;84:307–311.
    doi: 10.1016/j.mimet.2010.12.017pubmed: 21182874google scholar: lookup
  68. Barnes D.M., Bergeland M.E., Higbee J.M.. Differential Diagnosis of Clostridial Myonecrosis. Can. Vet. J. 1975;16:357–359.
    pmc: PMC1697094pubmed: 1212641
  69. Navarro M.A., Uzal F.A.. Pathobiology and Diagnosis of Clostridial Hepatitis in Animals. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2020;32:192–202.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638719886567pmc: PMC7081508pubmed: 31735127google scholar: lookup
  70. Barthold S.W., Griffey S.M., Percy D.H.. Mouse. In: Barthold S.W., Griffey S.M., Percy D.H., editors. Pathology of Laboratory Rodents and Rabbits. 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Chichester, UK: 2016. pp. 1–118.
  71. García J.A., Navarro M.A., Fresneda K., Uzal F.A.. Clostridium piliforme Infection (Tyzzer Disease) in Horses: Retrospective Study of 25 Cases and Literature Review. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2021:10406387211031213.
    doi: 10.1177/10406387211031213pmc: PMC9254052pubmed: 34238069google scholar: lookup
  72. Swerczek T.W.. Tyzzer’s Disease in Foals: Retrospective Studies from 1969 to 2010. Can. Vet. J. 2013;54:876–880.
    pmc: PMC3743575pubmed: 24155494
  73. Fosgate G.T., Hird D.W., Read D.H., Walker R.L.. Risk Factors for Clostridium piliforme Infection in Foals. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2002;220:785–790.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2002.220.785pubmed: 11918272google scholar: lookup
  74. St Denis K.A., Waddell-Parks N., Belanger M.. Tyzzer’s Disease in an 11-Day-Old Foal. Can. Vet. J. 2000;41:491–492.
    pmc: PMC1476212pubmed: 10857035
  75. Fresneda K.C., Chaigneau F.R.C.. Tyzzer’s Disease. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016; pp. 281–291.
  76. Cullen J.M., Stalker M.J.. Liver and Biliary System. In: Maxi M.G., editor. Jubb, Kennedy & Palmer’s Pathology of Domestic Animals. Volume 2. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2016. pp. 258–352.
  77. Navarro M., Uzal F.A.. Infectious Necrotic Hepatitis. In: Uzal F.A., Songer J.G., Prescott J.F., Popoff M.R., editors. Clostridial Diseases of Animals. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016. pp. 275–279.
  78. Aronoff D.M., Kazanjian P.H.. Historical and Contemporary Features of Infections Due to Clostridium novyi. Anaerobe 2018;50:80–84.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2017.12.012pubmed: 29471106google scholar: lookup
  79. Nyaoke A.C., Navarro M.A., Beingesser J., Uzal F.A.. Infectious Necrotic Hepatitis Caused by Clostridium novyi Type B in a Horse: Case Report and Review of the Literature. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2018;30:294–299.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638717737125pmc: PMC6505884pubmed: 29224513google scholar: lookup
  80. Bagadi H.O., Sewell M.M.. An Epidemiological Survey of Infectious Necrotic Hepatitis (Black Disease) of Sheep in Southern Scotland. Res. Vet. Sci. 1973;15:49–53.
    doi: 10.1016/S0034-5288(18)33851-7pubmed: 4591586google scholar: lookup
  81. Smith G.W.. Black Disease. In: Smith B.P., editor. Large Animal Internal Medicine. Mosby Elsevier; St. Louis, MO, USA: 2015. pp. 849–850.
  82. Oaks J.L., Kanaly S.T., Fisher T.J., Besser T.E.. Apparent Clostridium haemolyticum/Clostridium novyi Infection and Exotoxemia in Two Horses. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 1997;9:324–325.
    doi: 10.1177/104063879700900319pubmed: 9249177google scholar: lookup
  83. Whitfield L.K., Cypher E., Gordon S., Pauwels F., Ling J., Collett M.G., Uzal F.A.. Necrotic Hepatitis Associated with Clostridium novyi Infection (Black Disease) in a Horse in New Zealand. N. Z. Vet. J. 2015;63:177–179.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2014.973461pubmed: 25324033google scholar: lookup
  84. Nakamura S., Takematsu K., Nishida S.. Susceptibility to Mitomycin C and Lecithinase Activities of Clostridium oedematiens (C. novyi) Type B and D. J. Med. Microbiol. 1975;8:289–297.
    doi: 10.1099/00222615-8-2-289pubmed: 1142416google scholar: lookup
  85. Songer J.G.. Clostridium novyi (Myonecrosis, Black Disease, and Bacillary Hemoglobinuria) and Clostridium septicum (Braxy) Infections. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2009. Food Animal Practice; pp. 58–61.
  86. Sweeney H.J., Greig A.. Infectious Necrotic Hepatitis in a Horse. Equine Vet. J. 1986;18:150–151.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1986.tb03575.xpubmed: 3698956google scholar: lookup
  87. Davies J.L., Uzal F.A., Whitehead A.E.. Necrotizing Hepatitis Associated with Clostridium Novyi in a Pony in Western Canada. Can. Vet. J. 2017;58:285–288.
    pmc: PMC5302206pubmed: 28246418
  88. Sasaki Y., Kojima A., Aoki H., Ogikubo Y., Takikawa N., Tamura Y.. Phylogenetic Analysis and PCR Detection of Clostridium chauvoei, Clostridium haemolyticum, Clostridium novyi Types A and B, and Clostridium septicum Based on the Flagellin Gene. Vet. Microbiol. 2002;86:257–267.
    doi: 10.1016/S0378-1135(02)00002-0pubmed: 11900959google scholar: lookup
  89. Popoff M.R.. Tetanus. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016. Clostridial Diseases of Animals; pp. 293–302.
  90. Megighian A., Pirazzini M., Fabris F., Rossetto O., Montecucco C.. Tetanus and Tetanus Neurotoxin: From Peripheral Uptake to Central Nervous Tissue Targets. J. Neurochem. 2021;158:1244–1253.
    doi: 10.1111/jnc.15330pubmed: 33629408google scholar: lookup
  91. Furr M.. Disorders Associated with Clostridial Neurotoxins: Botulism and Tetanus. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2015. Equine Neurology; pp. 319–327.
  92. Ribeiro M.G., de Nardi Júnior G., Megid J., Franco M.M.J., Guerra S.T., Portilho F.V.R., Rodrigues S.A., Paes A.C.. Tetanus in Horses: An Overview of 70 Cases. Pesq. Vet. Bras. 2018;38:285–293.
    doi: 10.1590/1678-5150-pvb-5441google scholar: lookup
  93. Green S.L., Little C.B., Baird J.D., Tremblay R.R., Smith-Maxie L.L.. Tetanus in the Horse: A Review of 20 Cases (1970 to 1990). J. Vet. Intern. Med. 1994;8:128–132.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.1994.tb03210.xpubmed: 8046676google scholar: lookup
  94. Cook T.M., Protheroe R.T., Handel J.M.. Tetanus: A Review of the Literature. Br. J. Anaesth. 2001;87:477–487.
    doi: 10.1093/bja/87.3.477pubmed: 11517134google scholar: lookup
  95. Popoff M.R.. Tetanus in Animals. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2020;32:184–191.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638720906814pmc: PMC7081504pubmed: 32070229google scholar: lookup
  96. South V.. Clostridial Diseases of the Horse. Practice 2014;36:27–33.
    doi: 10.1136/inp.g163google scholar: lookup
  97. Le Maréchal C., Woudstra C., Fach P.. Botulism. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016. Clostridial Diseases of Animals; pp. 303–330.
  98. Ostrowski S.R., Kubiski S.V., Palmero J., Reilly C.M., Higgins J.K., Cook-Cronin S., Tawde S.N., Crossley B.M., Yant P., Cazarez R.. An Outbreak of Equine Botulism Type A Associated with Feeding Grass Clippings. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2012;24:601–603.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638712440987pubmed: 22529134google scholar: lookup
  99. Kinde H., Bettey R.L., Ardans A., Galey F.D., Daft B.M., Walker R.L., Eklund M.W., Byrd J.W.. Clostridium botulinum Type-C Intoxication Associated with Consumption of Processed Alfalfa Hay Cubes in Horses. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1991;199:742–746.
    pubmed: 1955364
  100. Semrad S., Peek S.. Equine Botulism. Compend. Contin. Educ. Pract. Vet. 2002;24:169–172.
  101. Whitlock R., McAdams S.. Equine Botulism. Clin. Tech. Equine Pract. 2006;5:37–42.
    doi: 10.1053/j.ctep.2006.01.006google scholar: lookup
  102. Galey F.D.. Botulism in the Horse. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2001;17:579–588.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30053-6pubmed: 11780288google scholar: lookup
  103. Cai S., Singh B.R., Sharma S.. Botulism Diagnostics: From Clinical Symptoms to in Vitro Assays. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 2007;33:109–125.
    doi: 10.1080/10408410701364562pubmed: 17558660google scholar: lookup
  104. Rosen O., Feldberg L., Dor E., Zichel R.. New Approach for the Rational Selection of Markers to Identify Botulinum Toxins. Arch. Toxicol. 2021;95:1503–1516.
    doi: 10.1007/s00204-021-02996-3pubmed: 33569691google scholar: lookup
  105. Morineaux V., Mazuet C., Hilaire D., Enche J., Popoff M.R.. Characterization of Botulinum Neurotoxin Type A Subtypes by Immunocapture Enrichment and Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2015;407:5559–5570.
    doi: 10.1007/s00216-015-8707-1pubmed: 26038189google scholar: lookup
  106. Plößl T., Vujtovic-Ockenga N., Kehrenberg C., Klaubert B.. Multi-Dimensional Nanoscale Liquid Chromatography and Nano-Electrospray Ion-Trap Mass Spectrometry for Detection of Clostridium botulinum Type C and the Produced Botulinum Neurotoxin Type C Complex. J. Microbiol. Methods. 2021;193:106397.
    doi: 10.1016/j.mimet.2021.106397pubmed: 34952090google scholar: lookup
  107. Centurioni D.A., Egan C.T., Perry M.J.. Current Developments in Diagnostic Assays for Laboratory Confirmation and Investigation of Botulism. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2021:JCM0013920.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.00139-20pmc: PMC9020338pubmed: 34586891google scholar: lookup
  108. Diamant E., Torgeman A., Epstein E., Mechaly A., David A.B., Levin L., Schwartz A., Dor E., Girshengorn M., Barnea A.. A Cell-Based Alternative to the Mouse Potency Assay for Pharmaceutical Type E Botulinum Antitoxins. ALTEX 2021;39:113–122.
    doi: 10.14573/altex.2105251pubmed: 34798660google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.