FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Animals (Basel) / Conceptualising the Impact of Arousal and Affective State on...
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2013; 3(2); 300-317; doi: 10.3390/ani3020300

Conceptualising the Impact of Arousal and Affective State on Training Outcomes of Operant Conditioning.

Abstract: Animal training relies heavily on an understanding of species-specific behaviour as it integrates with operant conditioning principles. Following on from recent studies showing that affective states and arousal levels may correlate with behavioural outcomes, we explore the contribution of both affective state and arousal in behavioural responses to operant conditioning. This paper provides a framework for assessing how affective state and arousal may influence the efficacy of operant training methods. It provides a series of three-dimensional conceptual graphs as exemplars to describing putative influences of both affective state and arousal on the likelihood of dogs and horses performing commonly desired behaviours. These graphs are referred to as response landscapes, and they highlight the flexibility available for improving training efficacy and the likely need for different approaches to suit animals in different affective states and at various levels of arousal. Knowledge gaps are discussed and suggestions made for bridging them.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2013-04-11 PubMed ID: 26487403PubMed Central: PMC4494394DOI: 10.3390/ani3020300Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article explores how an animal’s arousal and emotional state can influence the outcomes of operant conditioning training, providing a new framework for assessing these influences with the goal of enhancing training efficacy.

Understanding the Conceptual Framework

The main concept proposed within this paper is a new framework to understand how an animal’s emotional state (affective state) and their level of excitement or stress (arousal) can affect the results of operant conditioning — a type of behavioral training.

  • The authors argue that these two factors can significantly influence an animal’s response to training, proposing a complex relationship between affective state, arousal, and behavioral responses.
  • The novel framework presented aims at providing a systematic way to assess these influence, thereby better tailoring training approaches according to an animal’s specific state and arousal levels.

Role of Response Landscapes

A key aspect of this framework is the concept of ‘response landscapes’.

  • These are a series of three-dimensional graphs that represent the potential influences of affective state and arousal on an animal’s behavior.
  • The response landscapes serve as visual aids to predict the likelihood of animals, specifically dogs and horses, to perform desired behaviors under various affective states and arousal levels.
  • This visual tool becomes especially useful in identifying the potential flexibility in improving training efficacy.

Significance of Affective State and Arousal

The paper emphasizes the importance of an animal’s affective state and arousal levels in training.

  • Animals in different affective states and arousal levels may require different approaches to training, suggesting a need for personalized and adaptive training methods.
  • The authors argue that a better understanding and consideration of these factors can enhance the efficacy of operant conditioning.

Identifying Knowledge Gaps and Future Research

The paper also addresses some of the critical gaps in current knowledge about these aspects.

  • This includes the need to gather more empirical data on various species’ affective states and arousal levels, and how these two impacts their behavior.
  • The authors suggest that bridging these knowledge gaps can lead to the development of more effective animal training techniques, particularly in the context of operant conditioning.

Cite This Article

APA
Starling MJ, Branson N, Cody D, McGreevy PD. (2013). Conceptualising the Impact of Arousal and Affective State on Training Outcomes of Operant Conditioning. Animals (Basel), 3(2), 300-317. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani3020300

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 3
Issue: 2
Pages: 300-317

Researcher Affiliations

Starling, Melissa J
  • Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia. mjstarling@fastmail.com.au.
Branson, Nicholas
  • Deakin Research, Deakin University, Geelong VIC 3217, Australia. Nick.Branson@deakin.edu.au.
Cody, Denis
  • Indice Ecotech Pty Ltd., East Richmond VIC 3121, Australia. denis.cody@internode.on.net.
McGreevy, Paul D
  • Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney NSW 2006, Australia. paul.mcgreevy@sydney.edu.au.

References

This article includes 55 references
  1. McGreevy P, Boakes RA. Carrots and Sticks: Principles of Animal Training. .
  2. Panksepp J. Affective Neuroscience the Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions. .
  3. McGreevy PD, Starling M, Branson NJ, Cobb ML, Calnon D. An overview of the dog-human dyad and ethograms within it. J. Vet. Behav. Clin. Appl. Res. 2012;7:103–117.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2011.06.001google scholar: lookup
  4. Barrett LF, Mesquita B, Ochsner KN, Gross JJ. The experience of emotion.. Annu Rev Psychol 2007;58:373-403.
    doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.58.110405.085709pmc: PMC1934613pubmed: 17002554google scholar: lookup
  5. Russell JA, Bullock M. Multidimensional scaling of emotional facial expressions: Similarity from preschoolers to adults. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 1985;48:1290–1298.
    doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.48.5.1290google scholar: lookup
  6. Moruzzi G. Sleep and instinctive behavior.. Arch Ital Biol 1969 Jul;107(2):175-216.
    pubmed: 4311356
  7. Bradley MM, Miccoli L, Escrig MA, Lang PJ. The pupil as a measure of emotional arousal and autonomic activation.. Psychophysiology 2008 Jul;45(4):602-7.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2008.00654.xpmc: PMC3612940pubmed: 18282202google scholar: lookup
  8. Jones BE. Arousal systems.. Front Biosci 2003 May 1;8:s438-51.
    doi: 10.2741/1074pubmed: 12700104google scholar: lookup
  9. Williams LM, Phillips ML, Brammer MJ, Skerrett D, Lagopoulos J, Rennie C, Bahramali H, Olivieri G, David AS, Peduto A, Gordon E. Arousal dissociates amygdala and hippocampal fear responses: evidence from simultaneous fMRI and skin conductance recording.. Neuroimage 2001 Nov;14(5):1070-9.
    doi: 10.1006/nimg.2001.0904pubmed: 11697938google scholar: lookup
  10. Yerkes RM, Dodson DD. The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. Psychol. J. Comp. Neurol. 1908:459–482.
    doi: 10.1002/cne.920180503google scholar: lookup
  11. Eysenck M. Attention and Aroual: Cognition and Performance. .
  12. Hanoch Y. When less is more: Information, emotional arousal and the ecological reframing of the yerkes-dodson law. Theory Psychol. 2004;14:427–452.
    doi: 10.1177/0959354304044918google scholar: lookup
  13. Mair RG, Onos KD, Hembrook JR. Cognitive activation by central thalamic stimulation: the yerkes-dodson law revisited.. Dose Response 2011;9(3):313-31.
    doi: 10.2203/dose-response.10-017.Mairpmc: PMC3186927pubmed: 22013395google scholar: lookup
  14. Mendl M, Burman O, Parker R, Paul E. Cognitive bias as an indicator of animal emotion and welfare: Emerging evidence and underlying mechanisms. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2009;118:161–181.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2009.02.023google scholar: lookup
  15. Bethell E, Holmes A, Maclarnon A. Cognitive bias in a non-human primate: Husbandry procedures influence cognitive indicators of psychological well-being in captive rhesus macaques. Anim. Welf. 2012;21:185–195.
    doi: 10.7120/09627286.21.2.185google scholar: lookup
  16. Salmeto AL, Hymel KA, Carpenter EC, Brilot BO, Bateson M, Sufka KJ. Cognitive bias in the chick anxiety-depression model.. Brain Res 2011 Feb 10;1373:124-30.
    pubmed: 21156165doi: 10.1016/j.brainres.2010.12.007google scholar: lookup
  17. Burman O, Parker R, Paul E, Mendl M. A spatial judgement task to determine background emotional state in laboratory rats, Rattus norvegicus. Anim. Behav. 2008;76:801–809.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.02.014google scholar: lookup
  18. Mendl M, Brooks J, Basse C, Burman O, Paul E, Blackwell E, Casey R. Dogs showing separation-related behaviour exhibit a 'pessimistic' cognitive bias.. Curr Biol 2010 Oct 12;20(19):R839-40.
    pubmed: 20937467doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2010.08.030google scholar: lookup
  19. Matheson S, Asher L, Bateson M. Larger, enriched cages are associated with “optimistic” response biases in captive European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2008;109:374–383.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2007.03.007google scholar: lookup
  20. Brilot BO, Asher L, Bateson M. Stereotyping starlings are more 'pessimistic'.. Anim Cogn 2010 Sep;13(5):721-31.
    pubmed: 20464439doi: 10.1007/s10071-010-0323-zgoogle scholar: lookup
  21. Bateson M, Desire S, Gartside SE, Wright GA. Agitated honeybees exhibit pessimistic cognitive biases.. Curr Biol 2011 Jun 21;21(12):1070-3.
    pmc: PMC3158593pubmed: 21636277doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2011.05.017google scholar: lookup
  22. Bateson M, Matheson S. Performance on a categorisation task suggests that removal of environmental enrichment induces “pessimism” in captive European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris). Anim. Welf. 2007;16:33–36.
  23. Doyle RE, Lee C, Deiss V, Fisher AD, Hinch GN, Boissy A. Measuring judgement bias and emotional reactivity in sheep following long-term exposure to unpredictable and aversive events.. Physiol Behav 2011 Mar 28;102(5):503-10.
    pubmed: 21236279doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.01.001google scholar: lookup
  24. Destrez A, Deiss V, Belzung C, Lee C, Boissy A. Does reduction of fearfulness tend to reduce pessimistic-like judgment in lambs?. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2012;139:233–241.
  25. Douglas C, Bateson M, Walsh C, Bédué A, Edwards SA. Environmental enrichment induces optimistic cognitive biases in pigs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2012;139:65–73.
  26. Bar-Haim Y, Lamy D, Pergamin L, Bakermans-Kranenburg MJ, van IJzendoorn MH. Threat-related attentional bias in anxious and nonanxious individuals: a meta-analytic study.. Psychol Bull 2007 Jan;133(1):1-24.
    pubmed: 17201568doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.1google scholar: lookup
  27. Eysenck MW, Mogg K, May J, Richards A, Mathews A. Bias in interpretation of ambiguous sentences related to threat in anxiety.. J Abnorm Psychol 1991 May;100(2):144-50.
    doi: 10.1037/0021-843X.100.2.144pubmed: 2040764google scholar: lookup
  28. Mendl M, Burman OH, Paul ES. An integrative and functional framework for the study of animal emotion and mood.. Proc Biol Sci 2010 Oct 7;277(1696):2895-904.
    doi: 10.1098/rspb.2010.0303pmc: PMC2982018pubmed: 20685706google scholar: lookup
  29. Jing J, Gillette R, Weiss KR. Evolving concepts of arousal: insights from simple model systems.. Rev Neurosci 2009;20(5-6):405-27.
    pubmed: 20397622doi: 10.1515/revneuro.2009.20.5-6.405google scholar: lookup
  30. Baron A, Galizio M. Positive and negative reinforcement: Should the distinction be preserved?. Behav Anal 2005;28(2):85-98.
    pmc: PMC2755378pubmed: 22478443doi: 10.1007/bf03392107google scholar: lookup
  31. Baker TB, Piper ME, McCarthy DE, Majeskie MR, Fiore MC. Addiction motivation reformulated: an affective processing model of negative reinforcement.. Psychol Rev 2004 Jan;111(1):33-51.
    doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.111.1.33pubmed: 14756584google scholar: lookup
  32. Hickey C, Chelazzi L, Theeuwes J. Reward guides vision when it's your thing: trait reward-seeking in reward-mediated visual priming.. PLoS One 2010 Nov 23;5(11):e14087.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014087pmc: PMC2990710pubmed: 21124893google scholar: lookup
  33. Depue RA, Collins PF. Neurobiology of the structure of personality: dopamine, facilitation of incentive motivation, and extraversion.. Behav Brain Sci 1999 Jun;22(3):491-517; discussion 518-69.
    pubmed: 11301519doi: 10.1017/s0140525x99002046google scholar: lookup
  34. Bogdan R, Pizzagalli DA. The heritability of hedonic capacity and perceived stress: a twin study evaluation of candidate depressive phenotypes.. Psychol Med 2009 Feb;39(2):211-8.
    pmc: PMC2628414pubmed: 18507876doi: 10.1017/s0033291708003619google scholar: lookup
  35. McGreevy PD, McLean AN, Keay KA, Thomson PC. SMART: Sensitivity models for animals in response to training.. Vet J 2009 Jul;181(1):72-3.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.03.014pubmed: 19375963google scholar: lookup
  36. Nijhout HF. The importance of context in genetics. 2003;91:416–423.
  37. Overall KL. Veterinary Behavioural Medicine: A Roadmap for the 21st Century. Vet. J. 2005;169:130–143.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2004.10.007google scholar: lookup
  38. Haverbeke A, Laporte B, Depiereux E, Giffroy JM, Diederich C. Training methods of military dog handlers and their effects on the team’s performances. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2008;113:110–122.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2007.11.010google scholar: lookup
  39. Miller HC, Pattison KF, DeWall CN, Rayburn-Reeves R, Zentall TR. Self-control without a "self"?: common self-control processes in humans and dogs.. Psychol Sci 2010 Apr;21(4):534-8.
    doi: 10.1177/0956797610364968pubmed: 20424096google scholar: lookup
  40. Miller HC, DeWall CN, Pattison K, Molet M, Zentall TR. Too dog tired to avoid danger: self-control depletion in canines increases behavioral approach toward an aggressive threat.. Psychon Bull Rev 2012 Jun;19(3):535-40.
    doi: 10.3758/s13423-012-0231-0pubmed: 22460743google scholar: lookup
  41. Robbins TW. Arousal systems and attentional processes.. Biol Psychol 1997 Mar 21;45(1-3):57-71.
    doi: 10.1016/S0301-0511(96)05222-2pubmed: 9083644google scholar: lookup
  42. Pfaff D, Ribeiro A, Matthews J, Kow LM. Concepts and mechanisms of generalized central nervous system arousal.. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2008;1129:11-25.
    pubmed: 18591465doi: 10.1196/annals.1417.019google scholar: lookup
  43. Burman OH, Parker RM, Paul ES, Mendl MT. Anxiety-induced cognitive bias in non-human animals.. Physiol Behav 2009 Sep 7;98(3):345-50.
    doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.06.012pubmed: 19560479google scholar: lookup
  44. Tortora DF. Safety training: the elimination of avoidance-motivated aggression in dogs.. J Exp Psychol Gen 1983 Jun;112(2):176-214.
    doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.112.2.176pubmed: 6223971google scholar: lookup
  45. Rooney NJ, Cowan S. Training methods and owner-dog interactions: Links with dog behaviour and learning ability. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2011;132:169–177.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2011.03.007google scholar: lookup
  46. Herron ME, Shofer FS, Reisner IR. Survey of the use and outcome of confrontational and non-confrontational training methods in client-owned dogs showing undesired behaviors. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2009;117:47–54.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2008.12.011google scholar: lookup
  47. Blackwell EJ, Twells C, Seawright A, Casey RA. The relationship between training methods and the occurrence of behavior problems, as reported by owners, in a population of domestic dogs. J. Vet. Behav. Clin. Appl. Res. 2008;3:207–217.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2007.10.008google scholar: lookup
  48. Haverbeke A, De Smet A, Depiereux E, Giffroy J, Diederich C. Assessing undesired aggression in military working dogs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2009;117:55–62.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2008.12.002google scholar: lookup
  49. Schalke E, Stichnoth J, Ott S, Jones-Baade R. Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars on dogs in everyday life situations. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2007;105:369–380.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.11.002google scholar: lookup
  50. Schilder MBH, van der Borg JAM. Training dogs with help of the shock collar: Short and long term behavioural effects. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2004;85:319–334.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2003.10.004google scholar: lookup
  51. McLean AN, McGreevy PD. Horse-training techniques that may defy the principles of learning theory and compromise welfare. J. Vet. Behav.: Clin. Appl. Res. 2010;5:187–195.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2010.04.002google scholar: lookup
  52. Jones B, McGreevy PD. Ethical equitation: Applying a cost-benefit approach. J. Vet. Behav.: Clin. Appl. Res. 2010;5:196–202.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2010.04.001google scholar: lookup
  53. Range F, Heucke SL, Gruber C, Konz A, Huber L, Virányi Z. The effect of ostensive cues on dogs’ performance in a manipulative social learning task. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2009;120:170–178.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2009.05.012google scholar: lookup
  54. Garland EL, Fredrickson B, Kring AM, Johnson DP, Meyer PS, Penn DL. Upward spirals of positive emotions counter downward spirals of negativity: insights from the broaden-and-build theory and affective neuroscience on the treatment of emotion dysfunctions and deficits in psychopathology.. Clin Psychol Rev 2010 Nov;30(7):849-64.
    pmc: PMC2908186pubmed: 20363063doi: 10.1016/j.cpr.2010.03.002google scholar: lookup
  55. Mathews A, MacLeod C. Selective processing of threat cues in anxiety states.. Behav Res Ther 1985;23(5):563-9.
    doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(85)90104-4pubmed: 4051929google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 11 times.
  1. Fernández-Lázaro G, Dye MH, Eddie C, Ferrie GM. Strepsirrhine Primate Training Programs in North American Institutions: Status and Implications for Future Welfare Assessment.. Animals (Basel) 2021 Aug 21;11(8).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11082462pubmed: 34438919google scholar: lookup
  2. Xu S, Sun Y, Huang M, Huang Y, Han J, Tang X, Ren W. Emotional State and Feedback-Related Negativity Induced by Positive, Negative, and Combined Reinforcement.. Front Psychol 2021;12:647263.
    doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647263pubmed: 34040560google scholar: lookup
  3. Hartmann E, Rehn T, Christensen JW, Nielsen PP, McGreevy P. From the Horse's Perspective: Investigating Attachment Behaviour and the Effect of Training Method on Fear Reactions and Ease of Handling-A Pilot Study.. Animals (Basel) 2021 Feb 9;11(2).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11020457pubmed: 33572351google scholar: lookup
  4. Elias B, Starling M, Wilson B, McGreevy P. Influences on Infrared Thermography of the Canine Eye in Relation to the Stress and Arousal of Racing Greyhounds.. Animals (Basel) 2021 Jan 6;11(1).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11010103pubmed: 33419209google scholar: lookup
  5. Harvey ND, Craigon PJ, Shaw SC, Blott SC, England GCW. Behavioural Differences in Dogs with Atopic Dermatitis Suggest Stress Could Be a Significant Problem Associated with Chronic Pruritus.. Animals (Basel) 2019 Oct 16;9(10).
    doi: 10.3390/ani9100813pubmed: 31623070google scholar: lookup
  6. Kydd E, Padalino B, Henshall C, McGreevy P. An analysis of equine round pen training videos posted online: Differences between amateur and professional trainers.. PLoS One 2017;12(9):e0184851.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0184851pubmed: 28922395google scholar: lookup
  7. Fenner K, Webb H, Starling MJ, Freire R, Buckley P, McGreevy PD. Effects of pre-conditioning on behavior and physiology of horses during a standardised learning task.. PLoS One 2017;12(3):e0174313.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0174313pubmed: 28358892google scholar: lookup
  8. Glenk LM. Current Perspectives on Therapy Dog Welfare in Animal-Assisted Interventions.. Animals (Basel) 2017 Feb 1;7(2).
    doi: 10.3390/ani7020007pubmed: 28157145google scholar: lookup
  9. Starling M, McLean A, McGreevy P. The Contribution of Equitation Science to Minimising Horse-Related Risks to Humans.. Animals (Basel) 2016 Feb 23;6(3).
    doi: 10.3390/ani6030015pubmed: 26907354google scholar: lookup
  10. DeAraugo J, McLaren S, McManus P, McGreevy PD. Improving the Understanding of Psychological Factors Contributing to Horse-Related Accident and Injury: Context, Loss of Focus, Cognitive Errors and Rigidity.. Animals (Basel) 2016 Feb 15;6(2).
    doi: 10.3390/ani6020012pubmed: 26891333google scholar: lookup
  11. Payne E, Bennett PC, McGreevy PD. Current perspectives on attachment and bonding in the dog-human dyad.. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2015;8:71-9.
    doi: 10.2147/PRBM.S74972pubmed: 25750549google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,357 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.