FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland)2021; 10(10); doi: 10.3390/pathogens10101325

Detection of Anti-LipL32 Antibodies in Serum Samples from Horses with Chronic Intraocular Infection with Leptospira spp.

Abstract: Equine recurrent uveitis (ERU) is typically caused by chronic intraocular leptospiral infection in warm-blooded horses in central Europe. The most effective therapy for leptospiral-induced ERU is the surgical removal of diseased vitreous (vitrectomy). Since vitrectomy is a highly specialized and invasive surgery, the indication must be determined very carefully. In order to obtain evidence of intraocular leptospiral infection by laboratory diagnostics in questionable leptospiral ERU-cases, sampling of aqueous humor is required, because serum tests using microscopic agglutination test (MAT) are too unspecific. The SNAP Lepto is a cross-species rapid test for the detection of anti-Lipl32 antibodies that has a high sensitivity (0.97) and specificity (1.00) for the detection of anti-leptospiral antibodies using aqueous humor or vitreous samples, which is comparable to MAT. To evaluate sensitivity and specificity of SNAP Lepto using serum, serum samples from 90 horses with confirmed leptospiral ERU and from 103 ocularly healthy horses were tested by both MAT and SNAP Lepto. Sensitivity was similar for both tests (0.82 vs. 0.79), but specificity was lower for MAT (0.52 vs. 0.95). Sensitivity and specificity are therefore lower in serum samples compared to intraocular samples, however, the SNAP Lepto is far superior to MAT and suitable as a screening method using equine serum.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2021-10-14 PubMed ID: 34684272PubMed Central: PMC8537251DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10101325Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research focuses on the use of a cross-species rapid test called SNAP Lepto to detect anti-Lipl32 antibodies, a sign of chronic intraocular Leptospira infection in horses. This infection often results in equine recurrent uveitis (ERU). Although the sensitivity and specificity of the test were lower when using serum samples as opposed to intraocular ones, SNAP Lepto outperformed the traditional Microscopic Agglutination Test (MAT) and is deemed suitable as a screening method using equine serum.

Objective of the Study

  • The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the SNAP Lepto rapid test in identifying anti-Lipl32 antibodies, which are indicative of intraocular leptospiral infection, in serum samples drawn from horses. This leptospiral infection is a common cause of equine recurrent uveitis (ERU).

Methods Used and Findings

  • The researchers tested serum samples from 90 horses with a confirmed diagnosis of leptospiral ERU, and 103 horses without any ocular health issues using both MAT and SNAP Lepto.
  • The sensitivity (the test’s ability to correctly identify those with the disease) was found to be similar for both MAT and SNAP Lepto, scoring 0.82 and 0.79 respectively.
  • On the other hand, the specificity (the test’s ability to correctly identify those without the disease) was found to be significantly lower for MAT, coming in at 0.52, compared to SNAP Lepto’s score of 0.95.

Conclusion of the Study

  • While the sensitivity and specificity of the SNAP Lepto test were lower for serum samples compared to intraocular samples, its results were substantially better than those of MAT when applied to the serum samples. Thus, the researchers concluded that the SNAP Lepto test serves as a suitable screening method for chronic intraocular leptospiral infection using equine serum.

Cite This Article

APA
Geiger T, Gerhards H, Wollanke B. (2021). Detection of Anti-LipL32 Antibodies in Serum Samples from Horses with Chronic Intraocular Infection with Leptospira spp. Pathogens, 10(10). https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10101325

Publication

Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland)
ISSN: 2076-0817
NlmUniqueID: 101596317
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 10
Issue: 10

Researcher Affiliations

Geiger, Tobias
  • Clinic for Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hanover, Germany.
Gerhards, Hartmut
  • Equine Clinic, Clinical Department, Ludwig Maximilians University, 80539 Munich, Germany.
Wollanke, Bettina
  • Equine Clinic, Clinical Department, Ludwig Maximilians University, 80539 Munich, Germany.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 125 references
  1. Wollanke B, Gerhards H, Brem S, Kopp H, Meyer P. Intraocular and serum antibody titers to Leptospira in 150 horses with equine recurrent uveitis (ERU) subjected to vitrectomy. Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 1998;111:134–139.
    pubmed: 9581347
  2. Brem S, Gerhards H, Wollanke B, Meyer P, Kopp H. 35 Leptospirenisolationen aus Glaskörpern von 32 Pferden mit rezidivierender Uveitis (ERU). Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 1999;112:390–393.
    pubmed: 10598357
  3. Wollanke B, Gerhards H, Brem S, Wolf E, Kopp H, Meyer P. Zur Leptospirenaetiologie der equinen rezidivierenden Uveitis (ERU): Ergebnisse der Untersuchungen von Serum- und Glaskörperproben. Tieraerztl. Prax. 2000;28:153–158.
  4. Wollanke B, Rohrbach BW, Gerhards H. Serum and vitreous humor antibody titers in and isolation of Leptospira interrogans from horses with recurrent uveitis. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2001;219:795–800.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2001.219.795pubmed: 11561656google scholar: lookup
  5. Wollanke B. Die Equine Rezidivierende Uveitis (ERU) Als Intraokulare Leptospirose. 2002.
  6. Wollanke B, Gerhards H, Brem S, Meyer P, Kopp H. Aetiologie der equinen rezidivierenden Uveitis (ERU): Autoimmunkrankheit oder intraokulare Leptospireninfektion?. Pferdeheilkunde 2004;20:327–340.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20040403google scholar: lookup
  7. Von Borstel MV, Oey L, Strutzberg-Minder K, Boevé MH, Ohnesorge B. Direct and indirect detection of leptospires in vitreal samples of horses with ERU. Pferdeheilkunde 2010;26:219–225.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20100217google scholar: lookup
  8. Wiehen LE. Retrospektive Analyse zum Vorkommen der Equinen Rezidivierenden Uveitis—Unter Beruecksichtigung der Leptospireninfektion—An der LMU München von 01/2005 bis 06/2010. 2012.
  9. Baake E, von Borstel M, Rohn K, Ohnesorge B. Detection of intraocular leptospiral DNA, antibodies and Leptospira spp. in horses with equine recurrent uveitis in different laboratories. Pferdeheilkunde 2016;32:346–356.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20160407google scholar: lookup
  10. Dorrego-Keiter E, Tóth J, Dikker L, Sielhorst J, Schusser GF. Detection of leptospira by culture of vitreous humor and detection of antibodies against leptospira in vitreous humor and serum of 225 horses with equine recurrent uveitis. Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 2016;129:209–215.
    doi: 10.2376/0005-9366-129-15085pubmed: 27344913google scholar: lookup
  11. Wollanke B, Gerhards H, Schinagl C. Results of 654 trans-pars plana vitrectomies of equine eyes with recurrent uveitis-follow-up until 18 years after surgery. Pferdeheilkunde Equine Med. 2021;37:204–214.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20210301google scholar: lookup
  12. Geißler P, Wollanke B. Biofilm formation in persistent infections and its role in the pathogenesis of equine recurrent uveitis (ERU)—A literature review. Pferdeheilkunde Equine Med. 2021;37:225–233.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20210303google scholar: lookup
  13. Ackermann K, Kenngott R, Settles M, Gerhards H, Maierl J, Wollanke B. In Vivo Biofilm Formation of Pathogenic Leptospira spp. in the Vitreous Humor of Horses with Recurrent Uveitis. Microorganisms 2021;9:1915.
    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms9091915pmc: PMC8464839pubmed: 34576809google scholar: lookup
  14. Gsell O, Rehsteiner K, Verrey F. Iridocyclitis as a late consequence of Leptospirosis Pomona (porter’s disease): Agglutinin and lymphocytosis in the aqueous humor. Ophthalmologica 1946;112:320–334.
    doi: 10.1159/000300399pubmed: 20293718google scholar: lookup
  15. Heusser H. Zur Aetiologie der periodischen Augenentzündung. Schweiz. Arch. Tierheilk. 1952;94:296–306.
  16. Hartwigk H. Die periodische Augenentzündung des Pferdes als Spaetsymptom der Leptospirose. Tierarztl. Umsch. 1953;8:154–157.
  17. Bryans JT. Studies on equine leptospirosis. Cornell Veter. 1955;45:16–50.
    pubmed: 13219929
  18. Kathe J. Die Leptospirosen und ihre Verbreitung in der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik. Z. Hyg. 1955;1:39–62.
  19. Bolte HF. Uveitis, a Sequela to Experimentally Induced Leptospira Pomona Infection in the Shetland Pony. 1966.
  20. Zwierzchowski J. Klinik und Therapie der Leptospirosen der Haus- und Nutztiere. 1967;pp. 79–137.
  21. Dwyer AE, Crockett R, Kalsow CM. Association of leptospiral seroreactivity and breed with uveitis and blindness in horses: 372 cases (1986–1993). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1995;207:1327–1331.
    pubmed: 7591929
  22. Williams RD. The Presence and Duration of Persistence of Leptospira Pomona in Equine Ocular Tissues Following Experimentally Induced Systemic Infection. 1968.
  23. Williams RD, Morter RL, Freeman MJ, Lavignette AM. Experimental chronic uveitis. Ophthalmic signs following equine leptospirosis. Investig. Ophthalmol. 1971;10:948–954.
    pubmed: 5128770
  24. Verma A, Stevenson B, Adler B. Leptospirosis in horses. Vet. Microbiol. 2013;167:61–66.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.04.012pubmed: 23647816google scholar: lookup
  25. Ellis WA. 4. Disease in Animals. 4.4 Horses and Donkeys. 2015;pp. 109–110.
    doi: 10.1007/978-3-662-45059-8_6pubmed: 0google scholar: lookup
  26. Malalana F, Stylianides A, McGowan C. Equine recurrent uveitis: Human and equine perspectives. Vet. J. 2015;206:22–29.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.06.017pubmed: 26188862google scholar: lookup
  27. Divers TJ, Schang YF, Irby NL, Smith JL, Carter CN. Leptospirosis: An important infectious disease in North American horses. Equine Vet. J. 2019;51:287–292.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13069pubmed: 30629756google scholar: lookup
  28. Werry H, Gerhards H. Technique and indications for surgical treatment of equine recurrent uveitis. Pferdeheilkunde 1991;7:321.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM19910602google scholar: lookup
  29. Werry H, Gerhards H. Surgical treatment of equine recurrent uveitis: A preliminary report. Tierarztl. Prax. 1992;20:178–186.
    pubmed: 1609401
  30. Winterberg A, Gerhards H. Longterm-results of pars-plana-vitrectomy in equine recurrent uveitis. Pferdeheilkunde 1997;13:377–383.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM19970409google scholar: lookup
  31. Frühauf B, Ohnesorge B, Deegen E, Boevé M. Surgical management of equine recurrent uveitis with single port pars plana vitrectomy. Vet. Ophthalmol. 1998;1:137–151.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1463-5224.1998.00030.xpubmed: 11397223google scholar: lookup
  32. Gerhards H, Wollanke B, Winterberg A, Werry H. Technique for and results with vitrectomy in horses with recurrent uveitis. 1998;p. 30.
  33. Gerhards H, Wollanke B, Brem S. Vitrectomy as a diagnostic and therapeutic approach for equine recurrent uveitis (ERU). 1999;pp. 89–93.
  34. Gerhards H, Wollanke B. Uveitis bei Pferden-Diagnose und Therapie. Pferdeheilkunde 2001;20:319–329.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20010402google scholar: lookup
  35. Gerhards H, Wollanke B. Surgical treatment of equine recurrent uveitis: Trans-pars-plana vitrectomy in horses. 2005;pp. 314–319.
  36. Von Borstel M, Von Oppen T, Glitz F, Frühauf B, Deegen E, Boevé MH, Ohnesorge B. Long-term results of pars-plana (double-port) vitrectomy in equine recurrent uveitis. Pferdeheilkunde 2005;21:13–18.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20050102google scholar: lookup
  37. Tömördy E, Hässig M, Spiess BM. The outcome of pars plana vitrectomy in horses with equine recurrent uveitis with regard to the presence or absence of intravitreal antibodies against various serovars of Leptospira interrogans. Pferdeheilkunde 2010;26:251–254.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20100222google scholar: lookup
  38. Dorrego-Keiter E, Tóth J, Dikker L, Sielhorst J, Schusser GF. Long-term results of pars plana vitrectomy in relationship to leptospiral antibody detection in vitreous humor in 118 horses with equine recurrent uveitis (ERU). Pferdeheilkunde Equine Med. 2017;33:112–118.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20170201google scholar: lookup
  39. Baake EIA, von Borstel M, Rohn K, Boevé MH, Ohnesorge B. Long-term ophthalmologic examinations of eyes with equine recurrent uveitis after pars plana vitrectomy. Pferdeheilkunde 2019;35:220–233.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20190303google scholar: lookup
  40. Voelter K, Vial Z, Pot AS, Spiess BM. Leptospiral antibody prevalence and surgical treatment outcome in horses with Equine Recurrent Uveitis (ERU) in Switzerland. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2020;23:648–658.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12767pubmed: 32352624google scholar: lookup
  41. Wollanke B. Untersuchungen zur Aetiologie der Equinen Rezidivierenden Uveitis (ERU). 1995.
  42. Båverud V, Gunnarsson A, Engvall EO, Franzén P, Egenvall A. Leptospira seroprevalence and associations between seropositivity, clinical disease and host factors in horses. Acta Vet. Scand. 2009;51:15.
    doi: 10.1186/1751-0147-51-15pmc: PMC2679755pubmed: 19331656google scholar: lookup
  43. Blatti S, Overesch G, Gerber V, Frey J, Hussy D. Seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. in clinically healthy horses in Switzerland. Schweiz. Arch. Tierh. 2011;153:449–456.
    doi: 10.1024/0036-7281/a000247pubmed: 21971672google scholar: lookup
  44. Ebani VV, Bertelloni F, Pinzauti P, Cerri D. Seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in Italian horses. Ann. Agric. Environ. Med. 2012;19:237–240.
    pubmed: 22742794
  45. Arent ZJ, Kedzierska-Mieszkowska S. Seroprevalence study of leptospirosis in horses in northern Poland. Vet. Rec. 2013;127:269.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.101239pubmed: 23362180google scholar: lookup
  46. Habus J, Persic Z, Spicic S, Vince S, Stritof Z, Milas Z, Cvetnic Z, Perharic M, Turk N. New trends in human and animal leptospirosis in Croatia, 2009–2014. Acta Trop. 2017;168:1–8.
    doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.01.002pubmed: 28063871google scholar: lookup
  47. Vera E, Taddei S, Cavirani S, Schiavi J, Angelone M, Cabassi CS, Schiano E, Quintavalla F. Leptospira Seroprevalence in Bardigiano Horses in Northern Italy 2019. Animals 2020;10:23.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10010023pmc: PMC7022626pubmed: 31877658google scholar: lookup
  48. Wasinski B, Paschalis-Trela K, Trela J, Czopowicz M, Kita J, Zychska M, Cywinska A, Markowska-Daniel I, Carter C, Witkowski L. Serological Survey of Leptospira Infection in Arabian Horses in Poland. Pathogens 2021;10:688.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10060688pmc: PMC8228686pubmed: 34206112google scholar: lookup
  49. Hathaway S, Little T, Finch S, Stevens A. Leptospiral infection in horses in England: A serological study. Vet. Rec. 1981;108:396–398.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.108.18.396pubmed: 7292908google scholar: lookup
  50. Adler B, de la Peña Moctezuma A. Leptospira and leptospirosis. Vet. Microbiol. 2010;140:287–296.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2009.03.012pubmed: 19345023google scholar: lookup
  51. Hamond C, Martins G, Lawson-Ferreira R, Medeiros MA, Lilenbaum W. The role of horses in the transmission of leptospirosis in an urban tropical area. Epidemiol. Infect. 2013;141:33–35.
    doi: 10.1017/S0950268812000416pmc: PMC9152048pubmed: 22417781google scholar: lookup
  52. Loureiro AP, Hamond C, Lilenbaum W. Leptospirosis in horses. Vet. Rec. 2013;172:479–480.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.f2824pubmed: 23645436google scholar: lookup
  53. Finger MA, Filho IRDB, Leutenegger C, Estrada M, Ullmann LS, Langoni H, Kikuti M, Dornbush PT, Deconto I, Biondo AW. Serological and molecular survey of Leptospira spp. among cart horses from an endemic area of human leptospirosis in Curitiba, Southern Brazil. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 2014;56:473–476.
    doi: 10.1590/S0036-46652014000600003pmc: PMC4296865pubmed: 25351539google scholar: lookup
  54. Tsegay K, Potts AD, Aklilu N, Loetter C, Gummow B. Circulating serovars of Leptospira in cart horses of central and southern Ethiopia and associated risk factors. Prev. Vet. Med. 2016;125:106–115.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.01.009pubmed: 26809943google scholar: lookup
  55. Sohail M, Khan M, Ijaz M, Fatima Z, Naseer O, Ahamad W, Ahmad A. Seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. In Horses of Distinct Climatic Regions of Punjab, Pakistan. 2017;p. 237.
  56. Ribeiro TMP, Correia L, Spohr KAH, Aguiar DM, Martins G, de Sa Jayme V. Risk Factors Associated with Seroreactivity Against Leptospira sp. in Horses from Brazilian Amazon. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;68:59–62.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.05.197pubmed: 31256890google scholar: lookup
  57. Calderon JC, Astudillo M, Romero MH. Epidemiological characterization of Leptospira spp. infection in working horses and in an occupationally exposed population in six Colombian police stations. Biomedica 2019;39:19–34.
    doi: 10.7705/biomedica.v39i1.4475pubmed: 31529846google scholar: lookup
  58. Bolwell CF, Rogers CW, Benschop J, Collins-Emerson JM, Adams B, Scarfe KR, Gee EK. Seroprevalence of Leptospira in Racehorses and Broodmares in New Zealand. Animals 2020;10:1952.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10111952pmc: PMC7690811pubmed: 33114082google scholar: lookup
  59. Da Silva AS, Jaguezeski AM, Laber IF, von Laer AE, Lovato LT, da Silva MO, de Moura AB. Leptospira spp. in horses in southern Brazil: Seroprevalence, infection risk factors, and influence on reproduction. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2020;73:101551.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cimid.2020.101552pubmed: 33035771google scholar: lookup
  60. Fagre AC, Mayo CE, Pabilonia KL, Landolt GA. Seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. in Colorado equids and association with clinical disease. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2020;32:718–721.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638720943155pmc: PMC7488961pubmed: 32715980google scholar: lookup
  61. Tirosh-Levy S, Baum M, Schvartz G, Kalir B, Pe’er O, Shnaiderman-Torban A, Bernstein M, Blum SE, Steinman A. Seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. in horses in Israel. Pathogens 2021;10:408.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10040408pmc: PMC8065697pubmed: 33915691google scholar: lookup
  62. Gilger BC, Salmon JH, Yi NY, Barden CA, Chandler HL, Wendt JA, Colitz CMH. Role of bacteria in the pathogenesis of recurrent uveitis in horses from the southeastern United States. Am. J. Vet. Res. 2008;69:1329–1335.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.69.10.1329pubmed: 18828691google scholar: lookup
  63. Loibl J. Immunologische und Mikrobiologische Untersuchungen zur Intraokular Persistierenden Leptospireninfektion bei Pferden mit Rezidivierender Uveitis. 2009.
  64. Malalana F, Blundell RJ, Pinchbeck GL, McGowan CM. The role of Leptospira spp. in horses affected with recurrent uveitis in the UK. Equine Vet. J. 2017;49:706–709.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12683pmc: PMC5655720pubmed: 28321895google scholar: lookup
  65. Loibl JK, Gerhards H, Brem S, Wollanke B. Improving the laboratory diagnosis of leptospiral uveitis in horses by using an indirect ELISA for the detection of antibodies against Leptospira spp. in intraocular samples. Pferdeheilkunde Equine Med. 2018;34:267–277.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20180308google scholar: lookup
  66. Wollanke B, Gerhards H. Differential diagnosis of equine recurrent uveitis: The importance of a paracentesis of the anterior chamber and aqueous analysis. 2005.
  67. Gesell S, Wollanke B, Brem S, Gerhards H. Vergleich der Antikoerpertiter gegen Leptospiren in Kammerwasser- und Glaskoerperproben bei Pferden mit rezidivierender Uveitis. 2006;pp. 239–241.
  68. Wollanke B, Geiger T, Gerhards H. Evaluation of “SNAP® Lepto”-ELISA and comparison with MAT and PCR results for diagnosis of leptospiral uveitis in horses using intraocular samples. Pferdeheilkunde Equine Med. 2018;34:508–516.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20180601google scholar: lookup
  69. Geiger T. Evaluierung eines ELISA-Schnelltests (SNAP-Lepto®) für den Nachweis von Antikörpern gegen LipL32 in Serum und Intraokularem Probenmaterial von Pferden als Diagnostikum der Equinen Rezidivierenden Uveitis. 2019.
  70. Guerreiro H, Croda J, Flannery B, Mazel M, Matsunaga J, Reis MG, Levett PN, Ko AI, Haake DA. Leptospiral proteins recognized during the humoral immune response to leptospirosis in humans. Infect. Immun. 2001;69:4958–4968.
    doi: 10.1128/IAI.69.8.4958-4968.2001pmc: PMC98588pubmed: 11447174google scholar: lookup
  71. Haake DA, Chao G, Zuerner RL, Barnett JK, Barnett D, Mazel M, Matsunaga J, Levett PN, Bolin CA. The leptospiral major outer membrane protein LipL32 is a lipoprotein expressed during mammalian infection. Infect. Immun. 2000;68:2276–2285.
    doi: 10.1128/IAI.68.4.2276-2285.2000pmc: PMC97414pubmed: 10722630google scholar: lookup
  72. Baumgart A, Gerhards H. Besonderheiten der Tigerschecken-Uveitis und möglicher Cyclosporin A-Einsatz in deren Therapie in Deutschland. Pferdeheilkunde 2014;30:626–632.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20140601google scholar: lookup
  73. Faine S. Guidelines for the Control of Leptospirosis. 1982.
  74. Levett PN. Leptospirosis. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2001;14:296–326.
    doi: 10.1128/CMR.14.2.296-326.2001pmc: PMC88975pubmed: 11292640google scholar: lookup
  75. Haake DA, Levett PN. Leptospirosis in humans. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2015;387:65–97.
    doi: 10.1007/978-3-662-45059-8_5pmc: PMC4442676pubmed: 25388133google scholar: lookup
  76. Day N. Leptospirosis: Epidemiology, Microbiology, Clinical Manifestations, and Diagnosis. .
  77. Limmathurotsakul D, Turner EL, Wuthiekanun V, Thaipadungpanit J, Suputtamongkol Y, Chierakul W, Smythe LD, Day NP, Cooper B, Peacock SJ. Fool’s gold: Why imperfect reference tests are undermining the evaluation of novel diagnostics: A reevaluation of 5 diagnostic tests for leptospirosis. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2012;55:322–331.
    doi: 10.1093/cid/cis403pmc: PMC3393707pubmed: 22523263google scholar: lookup
  78. World Health Organization and International Leptospirosis Society. Annex 10, Serological Techniques (MAT and ELISA) In: World Health Organisation , editor. Human Leptospirosis: Guidance for Diagnosis, Surveillance and Control. 2003;pp. 63–75.
  79. Halliwell RE, Brim TA, Hines MA, Wolf D, White FH. Studies on equine recurrent uveitis. II: The role of infection with Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona. Curr. Eye Res. 1985;4:1033–1040.
    doi: 10.3109/02713688509003348pubmed: 3877614google scholar: lookup
  80. Alexander C, Keller H. Aetiology and occurrence of periodic ophthalmia among horses in Berlin. Tierarztl. Prax. 1990;18:623–627.
    pubmed: 2080508
  81. Jung BY, Lee KW, Ha TY. Seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. in clinically healthy racing horses in Korea. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 2010;72:197–201.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.09-0273pubmed: 19942812google scholar: lookup
  82. Pikalo J, Sattler T, Eichinger M, Loitsch A, Sun H, Schmoll F, Schusser GF. Occurrance of antibodies against Leptospira in horses in Middle Germany. Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 2016;129:202–208.
    pubmed: 27344912
  83. Gesell S. Gibt es eine Asymptomatische Intraokulare Leptospireninfektion beim Pferd?. 2004.
  84. Heusser H. Die periodische Augenentzündung, eine Lepospirose?. Schweiz. Arch. Tierheilk. 1948;90:287–312.
    pubmed: 18873089
  85. Hupka E, Behrens H. Untersuchungen über die Leptospirose des Pferdes. Dtsch. Tierarztl. Wochenschr. 1951;58:245–248.
  86. Kalisch J. Leptospirose und periodische Augenentzündung. Berl. Munch. Tierarztl. Wschr. 1952;65:5–9.
  87. Zaharija J, Maralt J, Cermak K, Andrasic N, Sanovic I. Leptospirose und periodische Augenentzündung beim Pferd. Schweiz. Arch. Tierheilk. 1960;102:400–408.
  88. World Organization of Animal Health—OIE. Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals OIE Terrestrial manual 2021; Chapter 3.1.12 Leptospirosis. 2021.
  89. Himebaugh NE, Gilger BC. Role of Leptospira spp. testing and ocular examination in horses with equine recurrent uveitis: A retrospective study of 63 horses. Equine Vet. Educ. 2021.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.13543google scholar: lookup
  90. Szemes PA, Gerhards H. Untersuchungen zur Prävalenz der equinen rezidivierenden Uveitis im Großraum Köln-Bonn. Prakt. Tierarzt. 2000;81:408–420.
  91. Gesell-May S, Brem S, Wollanke B, Gerhards H. Untersuchung gesunder Pferdeaugen auf eine intraokulare Leptospireninfektion. Pferdeheilkunde Equine Med. 2021;37:215–224.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20210302google scholar: lookup
  92. Wollanke B, Gerhards H, Kaufmann S. Investigations on the Borrelia-etiology in equine recurrent uveitis (ERU). Pferdeheilkunde Equine Med. 2017;33:447–451.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20170504google scholar: lookup
  93. Khurana S, Malik P, Nandal A, Srivastava S. Seroprevalence of Leptospirosis in Equines in India. Indian J. Comp. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. Dis. 2003;24:93–95.
  94. Pissawong T, Maneewatchararangsri S, Ritthisunthorn N, Soonthornworasiri N, Reamtong O, Adisakwattana P, Kalambaheti T, Chaisri U, Doungchawee G. Immunodominance of LipL3293–272 peptides revealed by leptospirosis sera and therapeutic monoclonal antibodies. J. Microbiol. Immunol. Infect. 2020;53:11–22.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jmii.2017.12.006pubmed: 29500044google scholar: lookup
  95. Adler B, Murphy A, Locarnini S, Faine S. Detection of specific anti-leptospiral immunoglobulins M and G in human serum by solid-phase enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1980;11:452–457.
    doi: 10.1128/jcm.11.5.452-457.1980pmc: PMC273430pubmed: 7381009google scholar: lookup
  96. Leonard F, Quinn P, Ellis W, O’Farrell K. Association between cessation of leptospiruria in cattle and urinary antibody levels. Res. Vet. Sci. 1993;55:195–202.
    doi: 10.1016/0034-5288(93)90081-Ppubmed: 8235087google scholar: lookup
  97. Da Silva MV, Nakamura PM, Camargo ED, Batista L, Vaz AJ, Romero EC, Brandao AP. Immunodiagnosis of human leptospirosis by dot-ELISA for the detection of IgM, IgG, and IgA antibodies. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 1997;56:650–655.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1997.56.650pubmed: 9230798google scholar: lookup
  98. Ismail ZB, Abutarbush SM, Al-Majali A, Gharaibeh MH, Al-Khateeb B. Seroprevalence and risk factors of Leptospira serovar Pomona and Leptospira serovar Hardjo infection in dairy cows in Jordan. J. Infect. Dev. Ctries. 2019;13:473–479.
    doi: 10.3855/jidc.11146pubmed: 32058981google scholar: lookup
  99. Goris MGA, Leeflang MMG, Loden M, Wagenaar JFP, Klatser PR, Hartskeerl RA, Boer KR. Prospective Evaluation of Three Rapid Diagnostic Tests for Diagnosis of Human Leptospirosis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2013;7:e2290.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002290pmc: PMC3708816pubmed: 23875034google scholar: lookup
  100. Goris MGA, Leeflang MMG, Boer KR, Goeijenbier M, van Gorp ECM, Wagenaar JFP, Hartskeerl RA. Establishment of Valid Laboratory Case Definition for Human Leptospirosis. J. Bacteriol. Parasitol. 2012;3:132.
    doi: 10.4172/2155-9597.1000132google scholar: lookup
  101. Tan XT, Amran F, Cheong KC, Ahmad N. In-house ELISA screening using a locallyisolated Leptospira in Malaysia: Determination of its cut-off points. BMC Infect. Dis. 2014;14:563.
    doi: 10.1186/s12879-014-0563-7pmc: PMC4212092pubmed: 25338815google scholar: lookup
  102. Brockie RE, Till DG. Leptospira ballum isolated from hedgehogs. New Zealand Vet. J. 1977;25:28–30.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.1977.34344pubmed: 275677google scholar: lookup
  103. Hathaway S, Blackmore DK. Ecological aspects of the epidemiology of infection with leptospires of the Ballum serogroup in the black rat (Rattus rattus) and the brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) in New Zealand. J. Hyg. 1981;87:427–436.
    doi: 10.1017/S0022172400069679pmc: PMC2134120pubmed: 7310125google scholar: lookup
  104. Hartskeerl RA, Goris MGA, Brem S, Meyer P, Kopp H, Gerhards H, Wollanke BJ. Classification of Leptospira from the Eyes of Horses Suffering from Recurrent Uveitis. Vet. Med. B Infect. Dis. Vet. Public Health 2004;51:110–115.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0450.2004.00740.xpubmed: 15107036google scholar: lookup
  105. Wollanke B, Gerhards H, Brem S, Geiger T, Wiehen L. Leptospira serovars in Germany and neighbouring countries in horses suffering from recurrent uveitis looking at intraocular and serum samples. 2018;p. 51.
  106. Rathinam SR. Manifestations of ocular leptospirosis. J. Postgrad. Med. 2005;51:189–194.
    pubmed: 16333191
  107. Shukla D, Rathinam SR, Cunningham ET. Leptospiral uveitis in the developing world. Int. Ophthalmol. Clin. 2010;50:113–124.
    doi: 10.1097/IIO.0b013e3181d2df58pubmed: 20375866google scholar: lookup
  108. Kalogeropoulos D, Asproudis I, Stefaniotou M, Moschos M, Gartzonika C, Bassukas I, Konitsiotis S, Milionis H, Gaitanis G, Malamos K. Spirochetal uveitis: Spectrum of clinical manifestations, diagnostic and therapeutic approach, final outcome and epidemiological data. Int. Ophthalmol. 2021.
    doi: 10.1007/s10792-021-01984-xpubmed: 34297303google scholar: lookup
  109. Ng HR, Cheong MY, Mustapha M. Ocular leptospirosis in four patients: A diagnostic dilemma. Med. J. Malaysia. 2021;76:569–572.
    pubmed: 34305121
  110. Verma A, Stevenson B. Leptospiral Uveitis—There Is More to It Than Meets the Eye!. Zoonoses Public Health 2012;59((Suppl. 2)):132–141.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2011.01445.xpubmed: 22958257google scholar: lookup
  111. Sivakolundu S, Sivakumar RR, Chidambaranathan GP, Sritharan M. Serological diagnosis of leptospiral uveitis by HbpA IgG ELISA. J. Med. Microbiol. 2012;61:1681–1687.
    doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.046870-0pubmed: 22956745google scholar: lookup
  112. Bjarnsholt T. The Role of Bacterial Biofilms in Chronic Infections. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. 2013;121((Suppl. 136)):1–51.
    doi: 10.1111/apm.12099pubmed: 23635385google scholar: lookup
  113. Høiby N, Bjarnsholt T, Moser C, Jensen PØ, Kolpen M, Qvist T, Aanaes K, Pressler T, Skov M, Ciofu O. Diagnosis of biofilm infections in cystic fibrosis patients. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. 2017;125:339–343.
    doi: 10.1111/apm.12689pubmed: 28407432google scholar: lookup
  114. Moser C, Pedersen HT, Lerche CJ, Kolpen M, Line L, Thomsen K, Høiby N, Jensen PØ. Biofilms and host response—Helpful or harmful. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. 2017;125:320–338.
    doi: 10.1111/apm.12674pubmed: 28407429google scholar: lookup
  115. Bjarnsholt T, Jensen P, Fiandaca MJ, Pedersen J, Hansen CR, Andersen CB, Pressler T, Givskov M, Høiby N. Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms in the respiratory tract of cystic fibrosis patients. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 2009;44:547–558.
    doi: 10.1002/ppul.21011pubmed: 19418571google scholar: lookup
  116. Høiby N. Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection in cystic fibrosis. Diagnostic and prognostic significance of pseudomonas aeruginosa precipitins determined by means of crossed immunoelectrophoresis. A survey. Acta Pathol. Microbiol. Scand. 1977;262((Suppl. C)):3–96.
    pubmed: 411327
  117. Høiby N, Bjarnsholt T, Moser C, Bassi GL, Coenye T, Donelli G, Hall-Stoodley L, Holá V, Imbert C, Kirketerp-Møller K. ESCMID guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of biofilm infections 2014. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2015;21((Suppl. 1)):S1–S25.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2014.10.024pubmed: 25596784google scholar: lookup
  118. Pedersen SS, Espersen F, Høiby N, Jensen T. Immunoglobulin A and immunoglobulin G antibody responses to alginates from Pseudomonas aeruginosa in patients with cystic fibrosis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1990;28:747–755.
    doi: 10.1128/jcm.28.4.747-755.1990pmc: PMC267788pubmed: 2110181google scholar: lookup
  119. Aanaes K, Johansen HK, Poulsen SS, Pressler T, Buchwald C, Høiby N. Secretory IgA as a diagnostic tool for Pseudomonas aeruginosa respiratory colonization. J. Cyst. Fibros. 2013;12:81–87.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jcf.2012.07.001pubmed: 22819141google scholar: lookup
  120. Cibulski S, Wollanke B. Investigations of wild small mammals and water samples from horse farms for DNA of pathogenic leptospires by real-time PCR. Pferdeheilkunde 2016;32:635–641.
    doi: 10.21836/PEM20160608google scholar: lookup
  121. Fritz KL, Kaese HJ, Valberg SJ, Hendrickson JA, Rendahl AK, Bellone RR, Dynes KM, Wagner ML, Lucio MA, Cuomo FM. Genetic risk factors for insidious equine recurrent uveitis in Appaloosa horses. Anim. Genet. 2014;45:392–399.
    doi: 10.1111/age.12129pubmed: 24467435google scholar: lookup
  122. Gilger BC. Chapter 8 Diseases of the uvea, uveitis, and recurrent uveitis. 2017;pp. 369–406.
  123. Rockwell H, Mack M, Famula T, Sandmeyer L, Bauer B, Dwyer A, Lassaline M, Beeson S, Archer S, McCue M. Genetic investigation of equine recurrent uveitis in Appaloosa horses. Anim. Genet. 2020;51:111–116.
    doi: 10.1111/age.12883pubmed: 31793009google scholar: lookup
  124. Sandmeyer LS, Bauer BS, Feng CX, Grahn BH. Equine recurrent uveitis in western Canadian prairie provinces: A retrospective study (2002–2015). Can. Vet. J. 2017;58:717–722.
    pmc: PMC5501119pubmed: 28698690
  125. Sandmeyer LS, Kingsley NB, Walder C, Archer S, Leis ML, Bellone RR, Bauer BS. Risk factors for equine recurrent uveitis in a population of Appaloosa horses in western Canada. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2020;23:515–525.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12749pubmed: 32086865google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 3 times.
  1. Strutzberg-Minder K, Ullerich A, Dohmann K, Boehmer J, Goris M. Comparison of Two Leptospira Type Strains of Serovar Grippotyphosa in Microscopic Agglutination Test (MAT) Diagnostics for the Detection of Infections with Leptospires in Horses, Dogs and Pigs. Vet Sci 2022 Aug 29;9(9).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci9090464pubmed: 36136680google scholar: lookup
  2. Geiger T, Gerhards H, Bjelica B, Mackenthun E, Wollanke B. Analysis of 1840 Equine Intraocular Fluid Samples for the Presence of Anti-Leptospira Antibodies and Leptospiral DNA and the Correlation to Ophthalmologic Findings in Terms of Equine Recurrent Uveitis (ERU)-A Retrospective Study. Vet Sci 2022 Aug 21;9(8).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci9080448pubmed: 36006363google scholar: lookup
  3. Wollanke B, Gerhards H, Ackermann K. Infectious Uveitis in Horses and New Insights in Its Leptospiral Biofilm-Related Pathogenesis. Microorganisms 2022 Feb 7;10(2).
    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms10020387pubmed: 35208842google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,727 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.