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PloS one2026; 21(1); e0328584; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0328584

Detection of vasculogenic mimicry in equine ocular, oronasal, and genital squamous cell carcinoma.

Abstract: Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the most common malignant tumor disease in horses. It predominantly affects the ocular, oronasal, and anogenital region. Equine SCC is difficult to treat, also because important aspects of SCC development and metastasis are still unclear. We previously provided evidence that equine SCC cells can adopt a stem cell-like phenotype as a hallmark of malignant progression. Here, we investigated whether equine SCCs harbor endothelial-like tumor cells that form an alternative network of pseudo-vessels better known as vasculogenic mimicry (VM). Following histopathological diagnosis, 43 equine SCCs or precursor lesions (15 ocular, 14 genital, 14 oronasal tumors) were PCR-screened for equine papillomavirus (EcPV) infection. Subsequently, formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE)-sections of all tumors were analyzed by Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) reaction and immunohistochemical (IHC) staining for endothelial cell marker CD31. Obtained micrographs were evaluated by a scientific board to unanimously identify sections of intact tumor tissue displaying PAS-positive, CD31-negative lumens harboring erythrocytes. Thirteen lesions exhibiting these features were subjected to triple immunofluorescence (IF) staining for CD31, pan-cytokeratin (KRT) and type 4 collagen (Col4) or alpha smooth muscle actin (αSMA) to confirm the presence of VM, and to determine whether pericytes have a role in this phenomenon. All genital and 50% of oronasal lesions scored positive for EcPV type 2, whilst ocular lesions tested negative. One mandibular SCC harbored EcPV type 5. Six genital, three oronasal, and four ocular tumors unambiguously exhibited VM as revealed by CD31-/PAS+ vessel-like structures containing erythrocytes, the detection of CD31-negative cells lining their lumens, and the presence of Col4 and αSMA in this lining. Detection of these two proteins in the context of VM suggests that VM-forming cancer cells recruit pericytes to enhance channel formation and stability. To our knowledge, this is the first report providing evidence of VM in equine cancer, and more generally, SCC in animals.
Copyright: © 2026 Schwarz et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
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Publication Date: 2026-01-05 PubMed ID: 41490689PubMed Central: PMC12768272DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0328584Google Scholar: Lookup
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Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This study investigates the presence of vasculogenic mimicry (VM), a process where tumor cells form vessel-like networks, in equine squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) affecting ocular, oronasal, and genital regions.
  • The researchers identify VM structures in these tumors and examine their cellular characteristics, including the involvement of pericytes. This is the first report showing VM in animal SCCs.

Background and Objectives

  • Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) is the most common malignant tumor in horses, frequently affecting the eyes, nasal/oral cavities, and genital areas.
  • Equine SCC is challenging to treat because mechanisms underlying its progression and spread (metastasis) are not fully understood.
  • Previously, researchers found that equine SCC cells can adopt stem cell-like traits, which is linked to malignancy.
  • The current study aims to investigate whether equine SCC tumors contain “endothelial-like” tumor cells that form alternative vascular networks known as vasculogenic mimicry (VM).
  • VM is different from traditional blood vessels because it is formed by tumor cells mimicking endothelial cells, creating channels that can carry blood and support tumor growth.

Methods

  • Tumor Samples:
    • 43 equine SCC tumors or precursors were analyzed: 15 ocular, 14 genital, and 14 oronasal lesions.
  • Equine Papillomavirus Screening:
    • Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was used to detect equine papillomavirus (EcPV) DNA in tumors, as viral infection can be linked with SCC development.
  • Histological and Immunohistochemical Analysis:
    • Tumor tissue sections were stained with Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) to highlight basement membrane-like structures.
    • Immunohistochemistry (IHC) staining for the endothelial marker CD31 was performed to distinguish true blood vessels (CD31-positive) from VM channels (CD31-negative but PAS-positive).
    • Scientific experts examined the stained tissue micrographs to identify lumens that contained red blood cells but lacked endothelial marker CD31, indicative of VM.
  • Triple Immunofluorescence Staining:
    • For the lesions exhibiting VM-like features, triple staining was performed for CD31, pan-cytokeratin (KRT, a tumor cell marker), and either type IV collagen (Col4) or alpha smooth muscle actin (αSMA).
    • This confirmed the presence of VM by showing tumor cells lining vessel-like structures without endothelial markers but with basement membrane proteins and pericyte markers.

Results

  • Equine Papillomavirus Findings:
    • EcPV type 2 was detected in all genital tumors and half of the oronasal tumors but was negative in ocular tumors.
    • One mandibular SCC carried EcPV type 5.
  • Vasculogenic Mimicry Identification:
    • 13 lesions showed PAS-positive, CD31-negative lumens containing erythrocytes, suggesting functional VM vessels.
    • These included 6 genital, 3 oronasal, and 4 ocular tumors.
  • Immunofluorescence Confirmation:
    • CD31-negative cells lining VM channels were positive for pan-cytokeratin, confirming their epithelial tumor origin rather than endothelial.
    • Type IV collagen and αSMA staining indicated the presence of basement membrane components and recruitment of pericytes in these VM structures.
    • The involvement of pericytes suggests that tumor cells may stabilize these pseudo-vessels similarly to real blood vessels.

Conclusions and Significance

  • This is the first study to directly demonstrate vasculogenic mimicry in equine cancers, specifically SCCs, as well as in animal squamous cell carcinoma generally.
  • VM may be an important mechanism employed by equine SCC tumors to support blood supply and contribute to malignant progression.
  • The finding that pericytes are recruited to VM channels suggests possible pathways for tumor vascularization distinct from classical angiogenesis.
  • Better understanding of VM in equine SCC could lead to improved treatment strategies targeting these alternative vascular structures.
  • These discoveries enhance the broader knowledge of tumor biology and malignancy in veterinary medicine and may offer insights relevant to human cancers as well.

Cite This Article

APA
Schwarz S, Kummer S, Klang A, Walter I, Nell B, Brandt S. (2026). Detection of vasculogenic mimicry in equine ocular, oronasal, and genital squamous cell carcinoma. PLoS One, 21(1), e0328584. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0328584

Publication

PloS one
ISSN: 1932-6203
NlmUniqueID: 101285081
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 21
Issue: 1
Pages: e0328584
PII: e0328584

Researcher Affiliations

Schwarz, Sophie
  • Department for Small Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.
Kummer, Stefan
  • VetCore Facility for Research, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.
Klang, Andrea
  • Institute of Pathology, Department of Biological Sciences and Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.
Walter, Ingrid
  • VetCore Facility for Research, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.
  • Institute of Morphology, Department of Biological Sciences and Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.
Nell, Barbara
  • Department for Small Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.
Brandt, Sabine
  • Research Group Oncology, Division of Equine Surgery, Department for Small Animal and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Horses
  • Carcinoma, Squamous Cell / pathology
  • Carcinoma, Squamous Cell / veterinary
  • Carcinoma, Squamous Cell / blood supply
  • Carcinoma, Squamous Cell / metabolism
  • Eye Neoplasms / pathology
  • Eye Neoplasms / veterinary
  • Eye Neoplasms / blood supply
  • Eye Neoplasms / metabolism
  • Horse Diseases / pathology
  • Horse Diseases / metabolism
  • Horse Diseases / virology
  • Neovascularization, Pathologic / pathology
  • Mouth Neoplasms / pathology
  • Mouth Neoplasms / veterinary
  • Mouth Neoplasms / blood supply
  • Mouth Neoplasms / metabolism
  • Nose Neoplasms / pathology
  • Nose Neoplasms / veterinary
  • Nose Neoplasms / blood supply
  • Female
  • Male
  • Papillomavirus Infections / veterinary
  • Papillomavirus Infections / pathology
  • Genital Neoplasms, Female / pathology
  • Genital Neoplasms, Female / veterinary

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

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