FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Frontiers in psychology2026; 17; 1752523; doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1752523

Effects of three equine-related training modalities on inhibitory control in children aged 7-8 years: an exploratory randomized controlled trial.

Abstract: Horseback riding training (HRT), horseback riding simulator training (HRST), and horse companion training (HCT) can improve physical fitness, cognitive abilities, and emotional well-being. However, their effects on inhibitory control (IC) are not well studied. Unassigned: This exploratory randomized controlled trial examined the effects of HRT, HRST, and HCT on IC in children aged 7-8 years and analyzed brain neural mechanisms using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Twenty-four children aged 7-8 years from Maple Leaf International School-Xi'an were randomly divided into three groups: the horseback riding group (HRTG), the horseback riding simulator group (HRSG), and the horse companion group (HCG), with 8 children in each group. The 24 subjects received training with HRT, HRST, and HCT. Each group received its assigned intervention: the HRTG received HRT, the HRSG received HRST and the HCG received HCT. All subjects performed the Flanker task while fNIRS data were collected. Unassigned: After 12 weeks of training, the HRTG showed faster reaction times and higher accuracy ( < 0.01) in both congruent and incongruent Flanker tasks. Importantly, fNIRS data showed that HRTG significantly increased the mean change in Oxy-Hb in channels 7, 21, and 23, which are approximately over the right lateral prefrontal cortex (putative R-DLPFC region) during the congruent Flanker task. Unassigned: HRT may improve IC and activate the R-DLPFC in children aged 7-8 years.
Copyright © 2026 Cheng, Ji and Chen.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2026-05-29 PubMed ID: 42293967PubMed Central: PMC13259761DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1752523Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This study explored how three types of horse-related training—horseback riding, horseback riding simulator use, and horse companion activities—affect inhibitory control in children aged 7-8 years.
  • The researchers also investigated changes in brain activity related to these training types using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS).

Background

  • Horseback riding and related activities are known to benefit physical fitness, cognitive skills, and emotional well-being in participants.
  • Inhibitory control (IC), an important executive function enabling individuals to suppress unwanted impulses and distractions, had not been thoroughly examined in relation to these equine-related training modalities.
  • This study addressed the gap by evaluating how horseback riding training (HRT), horseback riding simulator training (HRST), and horse companion training (HCT) influence IC in young children.

Study Design

  • An exploratory randomized controlled trial was conducted with 24 children aged 7-8 years from Maple Leaf International School in Xi’an.
  • Participants were randomly assigned to one of three groups, each with 8 children:
    • Horseback Riding Training Group (HRTG)
    • Horseback Riding Simulator Group (HRSG)
    • Horse Companion Group (HCG)
  • Each group received 12 weeks of their assigned intervention:
    • HRTG received actual horseback riding training.
    • HRSG received horseback riding simulator training.
    • HCG participated in horse companion activities (likely involving interaction without riding).
  • After training, participants performed the Flanker task, a well-established test for measuring inhibitory control.
  • Simultaneously, functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to measure brain activity focusing on oxygenated hemoglobin (Oxy-Hb) changes in the prefrontal cortex.

Flanker Task and Inhibitory Control Assessment

  • The Flanker task involves identifying a target stimulus while ignoring distracting flanking stimuli, providing measures of reaction time and accuracy under:
    • Congruent conditions (flanking stimuli aligned with the target)
    • Incongruent conditions (flanking stimuli conflicting with the target)
  • Performance on this task reflects the child’s ability to inhibit distractions and focus attention effectively.

Key Findings

  • The Horseback Riding Training Group (HRTG) showed significant improvements after 12 weeks:
    • Faster reaction times on both congruent and incongruent Flanker tasks compared to the other groups (statistical significance < 0.01).
    • Higher accuracy in both task conditions.
  • Functional brain imaging revealed that the HRTG had greater increases in Oxy-Hb concentration in fNIRS channels 7, 21, and 23, which correspond roughly to the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (R-DLPFC):
    • This brain region is associated with executive functions including inhibitory control and working memory.
    • Increased activation here suggests enhanced neural engagement during the task after horseback riding training.
  • No similarly notable behavioral or brain activation improvements were reported for the horseback riding simulator or horse companion groups.

Interpretation and Implications

  • Actual horseback riding training (HRT) appears to effectively improve inhibitory control in young children more than simulator-based or companion-focused horse activity.
  • The observed increase in R-DLPFC activation during the Flanker task indicates that horseback riding may strengthen neural circuits critical for executive control.
  • These findings support the use of horseback riding as a novel intervention to promote cognitive development, specifically inhibitory control, which is crucial for learning and attention.
  • Since inhibitory control underpins many academic and social skills, horseback riding could be considered a valuable extracurricular or therapeutic activity for children.
  • Further studies on larger samples and with longer follow-up could clarify the persistence of benefits and explore underlying mechanisms in more detail.

Limitations and Considerations

  • The sample size was relatively small (24 children), limiting generalizability.
  • The study was exploratory, so findings are preliminary and need replication.
  • Details on the exact nature and intensity of the horse companion training were limited, making comparisons difficult.
  • Future research could include control groups without any horse-related training and investigate additional cognitive domains.

Cite This Article

APA
Cheng X, Ji N, Chen C. (2026). Effects of three equine-related training modalities on inhibitory control in children aged 7-8 years: an exploratory randomized controlled trial. Front Psychol, 17, 1752523. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1752523

Publication

Frontiers in psychology
ISSN: 1664-1078
NlmUniqueID: 101550902
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 17
Pages: 1752523
PII: 1752523

Researcher Affiliations

Cheng, Xiaodong
  • Xi'an Medical University, Physical Education Department, Blockchain and Healthcare, Health Service Research Center, Xi'an, China.
Ji, Naichun
  • Xi'an Medical University, Physical Education Department, Blockchain and Healthcare, Health Service Research Center, Xi'an, China.
Chen, Cheng
  • Guangzhou Medical University, Physical Education Department, Guangdong, China.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The author(s) declared that this work was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 45 references
  1. Albaladejo-García C, García-Aguilar F, Moreno FJ. The role of inhibitory control in sport performance: systematic review and meta-analysis in stop-signal paradigm. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 147:105108.
    doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105108pubmed: 36828162google scholar: lookup
  2. Amatriain-Fernández S, Ezquerro García-Noblejas M, Budde H. Effects of chronic exercise on the inhibitory control of children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Scand. J. Med. Sci. Sports 31, 1196–1208.
    doi: 10.1111/sms.13934pubmed: 33559271google scholar: lookup
  3. Banich MT, Milham MP, Atchley R, Cohen NJ, Webb A, Wszalek T. fMRI studies of Stroop tasks reveal unique roles of anterior and posterior brain systems in attentional selection. J. Cogn. Neurosci. 12, 988–1000.
    doi: 10.1162/08989290051137521pubmed: 11177419google scholar: lookup
  4. Bedard A-C, Nichols S, Barbosa JA, Schachar R, Logan GD, Tannock R. The development of selective inhibitory control across the life span. Dev. Neuropsychol. 21, 93–111.
    doi: 10.1207/S15326942DN2101_5pubmed: 12058837google scholar: lookup
  5. Best JR, Miller PH. A developmental perspective on executive function. Child Dev. 81, 1641–1660.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01499.xpmc: PMC3058827pubmed: 21077853google scholar: lookup
  6. Borges MBS e, Werneck MJS, Silva M de L da, Gandolfi L, Pratesi R. Therapeutic effects of a horse riding simulator in children with cerebral palsy. Arq. Neuropsiquiatr. 69, 799–804.
    doi: 10.1590/S0004-282X2011000600014pubmed: 22042184google scholar: lookup
  7. Byun K, Hyodo K, Suwabe K, Ochi G, Sakairi Y, Kato M. Positive effect of acute mild exercise on executive function via arousal-related prefrontal activations: an fNIRS study. NeuroImage 98, 336–345.
    doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.04.067pubmed: 24799137google scholar: lookup
  8. Chaddock-Heyman L, Hillman CH, Cohen NJ, Kramer AF. III. The importance of physical activity and aerobic fitness for cognitive control and memory in children. Monogr. Soc. Res. Child Dev. 79, 25–50.
    doi: 10.1111/mono.12129pubmed: 25387414google scholar: lookup
  9. Cheng X, Qian L, Fan Y, Tang Q, Wu H. The effect of equine-assisted activities in children aged 7–8 years inhibitory control: an fNIRS study. J. Integr. Neurosci. 22:89.
    doi: 10.31083/j.jin2204089pubmed: 37519175google scholar: lookup
  10. Cheng X, Zhen K, Fan Y, Cheng XD, Zhen KX, Tang Q. The effects of equine-assisted activities on execution function in children aged 7–8 years: a randomized controlled trial. Brain Behav. 13:e3148.
    doi: 10.1002/brb3.3148pmc: PMC10498089pubmed: 37443400google scholar: lookup
  11. Cook R, Frederick EL. Incorporating Game in Hippotherapy A Companion Book to the Brown Pony Series. .
  12. Diamond A. Executive functions. Annu. Rev. Psychol. 64, 135–168.
    doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750pmc: PMC4084861pubmed: 23020641google scholar: lookup
  13. Elmeua González M, Šarabon N. Muscle modes of the equestrian rider at walk, rising trot and canter. PLoS One 15:e0237727.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0237727pmc: PMC7446812pubmed: 32810165google scholar: lookup
  14. Eriksen BA. Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target letter in a nonsearch task. Percept. Psychophys. 16, 143–149.
    doi: 10.3758/bf03203267google scholar: lookup
  15. Faul F, Erdfelder E, Lang AG, Buchner A. G*power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behav. Res. Methods 39, 175–191.
    doi: 10.3758/BF03193146pubmed: 17695343google scholar: lookup
  16. Ishihara T, Mizuno M. Effects of tennis play on executive function in 6–11-year-old children: a 12-month longitudinal study. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 18, 741–752.
    doi: 10.1080/17461391.2018.1444792pubmed: 29529951google scholar: lookup
  17. Ishihara T, Sugasawa S, Matsuda Y, Mizuno M. Relationship of tennis play to executive function in children and adolescents. Eur. J. Sport Sci. 17, 1074–1083.
    doi: 10.1080/17461391.2017.1334831pubmed: 28609253google scholar: lookup
  18. Künzle U. Hippotherapie auf den Grundlagen der Funktionellen Bewegungslehre Klein-Vogelbach: Hippotherapie-K® Theorie, praktische Anwendung, Wirksamkeitsnachweis. .
  19. Lechner HE, Kakebeeke TH, Hegemann D, Baumberger M. The effect of hippotherapy on spasticity and on mental well-being of persons with spinal cord injury. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 88, 1241–1248.
    doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2007.07.015pubmed: 17908564google scholar: lookup
  20. Li D. Meta-analysis of the influence of exercise intervention based on medical images on the inhibitory control function of adolescents. Netw. Model. Anal. Health Inform. Bioinform. 10:54.
    doi: 10.1007/s13721-021-00327-1google scholar: lookup
  21. Logan GD, Schachar RJ, Tannock R. Impulsivity and inhibitory control. Psychol. Sci. 8, 60–64.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00545.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  22. Maresca G, Portaro S, Naro A, Crisafulli R, Raffa A, Scarcella I. Hippotherapy in neurodevelopmental disorders: a narrative review focusing on cognitive and behavioral outcomes. Appl. Neuropsychol. Child 11, 553–560.
    doi: 10.1080/21622965.2020.1852084pubmed: 33949903google scholar: lookup
  23. Mattila-Rautiainen S, Venojärvi M, Sobolev A, Tikkanen H, Keski-Valkama A. Development and pilot of equine facilitated physical therapy outcome measure tool for chronic low back pain patients. J. Bodyw. Mov. Ther. 37, 417–421.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jbmt.2024.01.005pubmed: 38432839google scholar: lookup
  24. McGibbon NH, Benda W, Duncan BR, Silkwood-Sherer D. Immediate and long-term effects of hippotherapy on symmetry of adductor muscle activity and functional ability in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 90, 966–974.
    doi: 10.1016/j.apmr.2009.01.011pubmed: 19480872google scholar: lookup
  25. Mitani Y, Doi K, Yano T, Sakamaki E, Mukai K, Shinomiya Y. Effect of exercise using a horse-riding simulator on physical ability of frail seniors. J. Phys. Ther. Sci. 20:177-183.
    doi: 10.1589/jpts.20.177google scholar: lookup
  26. Nee DE, Wager TD, Jonides J. Interference resolution: insights from a meta-analysis of neuroimaging tasks. Cognit. Affective Behav. Neurosci. 7, 1–17.
    doi: 10.3758/CABN.7.1.1pubmed: 17598730google scholar: lookup
  27. Nigg JT. On inhibition/disinhibition in developmental psychopathology: views from cognitive and personality psychology and a working inhibition taxonomy. Psychol. Bull. 126, 220–246.
    doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.126.2.220pubmed: 10748641google scholar: lookup
  28. Pluta M. Characteristics of the trunks of horses used for classic hippotherapy. Ann. Univ. Mariae Curie-Skłodowska Sect. EE Zootech. 27, 1–16.
    doi: 10.2478/v10083-009-0011-0google scholar: lookup
  29. Portaro S, Bramanti P, Cacciola A, Cavallaro F, Milardi D. Why do we apply hippotherapy in neurological diseases? A brief overview and future perspectives. Int. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 4, 4–5.
    doi: 10.4172/2329-9096.1000e117google scholar: lookup
  30. Sato H, Kiguchi M, Kawaguchi F, Maki A. Practicality of wavelength selection to improve signal-to-noise ratio in near-infrared spectroscopy. NeuroImage 21, 1554–1562.
    doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.12.017pubmed: 15050579google scholar: lookup
  31. Schroeder V. M.n. [doctoral dissertation], Miami University OhioLINK Electronic Theses and Dissertations Center (2015)
  32. Shinomiya Y, Ozawa T, Hosaka Y, Wang S, Ishida K, Kimura T. Development and physical training evaluation of horseback riding therapeutic equipment. Proceedings 2003 IEEE/ASME international conference on advanced intelligent mechatronics (AIM 2003) IEEE.
  33. Song Q, Cheng X, Zheng R, Yang J, Wu H. Effects of different exercise intensities of race-walking on brain functional connectivity as assessed by functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 16:1002793.
    doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2022.1002793pmc: PMC9614086pubmed: 36310841google scholar: lookup
  34. Stroop J R. Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. J. Exp. Psychol. 18:643.
    doi: 10.1037/h0054651google scholar: lookup
  35. Su-Youn C, So W-Y, Roh H-T. The effects of taekwondo training on peripheral neuroplasticity-related growth factors, cerebral blood flow velocity, and cognitive functions in healthy children: a randomized controlled trial. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 14:454.
    doi: 10.3390/ijerph14050454pmc: PMC5451905pubmed: 28441325google scholar: lookup
  36. Suzuki M, Miyai I, Ono T, Oda I, Konishi I, Kochiyama T. Prefrontal and premotor cortices are involved in adapting walking and running speed on the treadmill: an optical imaging study. NeuroImage 23, 1020–1026.
    doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.07.002pubmed: 15528102google scholar: lookup
  37. Thiebaut de Schotten M, Dell’Acqua F, Forkel S, Simmons A, Vergani F, Murphy D G M. A lateralized brain network for visuo-spatial attention. Nat. Nurosci. 10:1245.
    doi: 10.1038/npre.2011.5549.1pubmed: 21926985google scholar: lookup
  38. Titz C, Karbach J. Working memory and executive functions: effects of training on academic achievement. Psychol. Res. 78, 852–868.
    doi: 10.1007/s00426-013-0537-1pubmed: 24389706google scholar: lookup
  39. Ulrich R, Prislan L, Miller J. A bimodal extension of the Eriksen flanker task. Atten. Percept. Psychophys. 83, 790–799.
    doi: 10.3758/s13414-020-02150-8pmc: PMC7884581pubmed: 33179215google scholar: lookup
  40. Vock M, Preckel F, Holling H. Mental abilities and school achievement: a test of a mediation hypothesis. Intelligence 39, 357–369.
    doi: 10.1016/j.intell.2011.06.006google scholar: lookup
  41. Wang B, Guo W, Zhou C. Selective enhancement of attentional networks in college table tennis athletes: a preliminary investigation. PeerJ 4:e2762.
    doi: 10.7717/peerj.2762pmc: PMC5144722pubmed: 27957396google scholar: lookup
  42. Ward S C, Whalon K, Rusnak K, Wendell K, Paschall N. The association between therapeutic horseback riding and the social communication and sensory reactions of children with autism. J. Autism Dev. Disord. 43, 2190–2198.
    doi: 10.1007/s10803-013-1773-3pubmed: 23371511google scholar: lookup
  43. Xuan B, Mackie M A, Spagna A, Wu T, Tian Y, Hof P R. The activation of interactive attentional networks. NeuroImage 129, 308–319.
    doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.01.017pmc: PMC4803523pubmed: 26794640google scholar: lookup
  44. Yu M, Xu S, Hu H, Li S, Yang G. Differences in right hemisphere fNIRS activation associated with executive network during performance of the lateralized attention network tast by elite, expert and novice ice hockey athletes. Behav. Brain Res. 443:114209.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bbr.2022.114209pubmed: 36368444google scholar: lookup
  45. Zhou X, Planalp EM, Heinrich L, Pletcher C, DiPiero M, Alexander AL. Inhibitory control in children 4–10 years of age: evidence from functional near-infrared spectroscopy task-based observations. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 15:798358.
    doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2021.798358pmc: PMC8762317pubmed: 35046786google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 106,600 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.