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Topic:Neurology
Neurology in horses encompasses the study of the equine nervous system, including its structure, function, and associated disorders. The equine nervous system is divided into the central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which includes nerves extending throughout the body. Neurological conditions in horses can manifest as gait abnormalities, behavioral changes, or sensory deficits. Common neurological disorders include equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM), cervical vertebral stenotic myelopathy (CVSM), and equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM). Diagnostic approaches may involve clinical evaluation, imaging techniques, and laboratory tests. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of neurological disorders in horses.
Modified technique for resection of the alar folds to nasal paralysis in a mule: Case report. Equids are obligate nasal breathers. Therefore, conditions that obstruct or impair this respiratory route can compromise animal welfare by causing severe respiratory distress, while also impacting athletic potential. Nasal paralysis results from injury to the facial nerve and its branches and is characterized by the lack of movement of the alar cartilage, leading to nasal collapse. Its occurrence is uncommon in horses and has not been previously reported in mules. This report describes a 9-month-old mule presented with a history of facial trauma and compression caused by a halter. After unsucc...
Diagnostic utility of trigeminocervical reflex and quantitative sensory testing in horses with trigeminal-mediated headshaking. Assessment of trigeminal nerve (TN) function in horses with trigeminal-mediated headshaking (TMHS) using trigeminocervical reflex (TCR) and quantitative sensory testing (QST) has not been investigated. Objective: Horses with TMHS show lower TCR and QST thresholds than controls. A subset shows left-to-right differences. Methods: Privately owned horses with TMHS (n = 12) and secondary headshaking (sHS; n = 4), from a referral hospital. Headshaking-free controls (n = 14), from the hospital's teaching herd or privately owned. Methods: Prospective case-control-study. In unsedated horses, TCR ...
Seizures and blindness onset zone in 7 horses undergoing radiographic myelography in lateral recumbency under inhalation anesthesia. Seizures and blindness are potential complications associated with myelography. Objective: Describe, classify, and determine onset zone of seizures and blindness in horses undergoing radiographic myelography in lateral recumbency. Methods: Seven young adult horses. Methods: Retrospective study. Horses with seizures or blindness associated with myelography were included. Results: Three horses with general proprioceptive ataxia and 4 neurologically normal horses (Warmblood = 4, Thoroughbred = 3), ages 9 (range, 3-16) years old. Iohexol (300 mg I/mL) from 50 to 60 mL (0.09-0.1 mL/kg) were ...
Magnesium Dysregulation. Magnesium (Mg) is a critical intracellular cation involved in energy metabolism, neuromuscular and cardiac stability, and endocrine regulation of calcium and potassium. In horses, Mg dysregulation is common in gastrointestinal disease, systemic inflammation and critical illness, yet often remains underdiagnosed. Hypomagnesemia contributes to ileus, cardiac arrhythmias, and refractory hypocalcemia or hypokalemia, whereas hypermagnesemia is rarely reported and typically iatrogenic. This review summarizes Mg physiology, regulation, clinical manifestations of Mg dysregulation, diagnostic approache...
A color-coded atlas of the cortical surface anatomy of the equine brain. The horse has a highly gyrencephalic cerebrum; however, detailed references of equine cortical surface anatomy remain limited, and terminology inconsistencies continue to complicate comparative, clinical, and educational applications. This research focused on creating a standardized, high-resolution, color-coded atlas of equine brain sulci and gyri, based on the Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria (NAV). Unassigned: Brains from ten neurologically normal horses were examined. Following fixation and dissection, the sulci and gyri of the lateral, dorsal, rostral, and medial surfaces were documented, col...
An experimental multiplex PCR/RT-PCR for detection of the main viruses associated with equine neurological disease. Viral neurological infections are important causes of morbidity and mortality in horses worldwide. Herein, we describe an end-point multiplex PCR/RT-PCR for simultaneous and differential detection of major equine encephalitis-related agents: rabies virus (RABV), equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1), alphaviruses [Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), Western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV) and Madariaga virus (MADV)] and flaviviruses [West Nile virus (WNV), Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV), Rocio virus (ROCV) and Japanese encephalitis virus (...
Epidural 0.125% ropivacaine is safe but insufficient for induced tibiotarsal joint pain. Epidural injection of a low concentration of the local anaesthetic ropivacaine produces analgesia without neurological deficits or ileus in people. Objective: To determine if epidural 0.125% ropivacaine mitigates induced hindlimb lameness in horses while preserving neurological function and gastrointestinal (GI) motility. Methods: Randomised, blinded, controlled, crossover study. Methods: Eight healthy, sound horses underwent two treatments in random order, separated by at least 3 weeks: epidural saline or epidural ropivacaine. For each treatment, an epidural catheter was inserted at the fir...
Leptomeningeal dissemination of a poorly differentiated carcinoma involving the trigeminal ganglion in a horse: a case report. Neoplastic conditions involving cranial nerves are uncommon in horses and represent a significant diagnostic challenge. Leptomeningeal dissemination is a recognized mechanism of tumor progression in aggressive neoplasms but is rarely reported in this species. A 15-year-old mixed-breed horse with a history of periocular squamous cell carcinoma treated by enucleation three years earlier developed progressive neurological signs. Initial differential diagnoses included metastatic neoplasia and equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Due to rapid neurological deterioration, euthanasia and necropsy were...
Eight Weeks of 448 kHz Radiofrequency Therapy Increases Multifidus Muscle Cross-Sectional Area and Modulates Thoracolumbar Range of Motion in Horses with Chronic Back Pain. We aimed to investigate the effects of an 8-week 448 kHz radiofrequency (RF) on multifidus cross-sectional area (CSA) and thoracolumbar differential range of motion (ROM). Eight Thoroughbred horseball horses received four RF treatments (T9-L6) at 2-week intervals. Multifidus CSA (T10-L5) and differential spinal ROM between the withers (W), T13, T18, L3 and sacrum (S) were measured before treatment, immediately after the first session, 24 h after the first session, and at 8 weeks (15 days after the last session). Linear mixed models with Tukey post hoc comparisons were used. Significant effects...
Hepatic encephalopathy associated with extensive hepatic diaphragmatic herniation in an adult horse. Diaphragmatic hernia in horses is a rare condition, most commonly presenting with signs of colic and, less frequently, respiratory compromise. Hepatic herniation through a diaphragmatic defect with secondary hepatic failure and encephalopathy has rarely been documented in horses. Methods: A 5-year-old Mangalarga Marchador stallion was evaluated for progressive neurological deterioration, including obtundation, head pressing, ataxia, and circling. Serum biochemistry revealed severe hepatobiliary dysfunction, characterised by increased gamma-glutamyl transferase and alkaline phosphatase activiti...
Central nervous system lymphoma and neurolymphomatosis in equids. Lymphoma affecting the central and peripheral nervous systems in equids is rarely reported. Objective: To describe the clinical presentation, neuroanatomical localization, laboratory and pathologic features, type of lymphoma, and outcome to further current knowledge. Methods: Fourteen equids (13 horses, 1 mule). Methods: Retrospective study. Medical records from a veterinary teaching hospital were reviewed (1993-2025). The inclusion criteria consisted of a definitive diagnosis of lymphoma of the nervous system. Data collected included signalment, neurologic findings, laboratory results, imagin...
Ceratohyoidectomy for Management of Unilateral and Bilateral Temporohyoid Osteoarthropathy: Long-Term Outcome in 33 Equids. Temporohyoid osteoarthropathy is a disease affecting the temporohyoid joint in equids caused by local inflammation and/or degeneration, leading to neurological deficits ranging from mild signs that affect performance to significant, acute neurological deficits such as facial nerve paralysis or vestibular signs. Multiple surgical treatment options are available, and while treatment has historically been performed unilaterally on the side of the clinical signs, advances in diagnostic imaging have highlighted the occurrence of bilateral disease of the temporohyoid joints, warranting evaluation of...
Improving concussion assessment in jockeys: normative benchmarks and web-based tool for ImPACT interpretation. Despite horse racing's exceptionally high concussion risk, there is no jockey-specific ImPACT study. This work aimed to develop demographically adjusted, jockey-specific ImPACT norms and to evaluate complementary approaches to clinical classification. Unassigned: Retrospective baseline data from 663 Irish jockeys (2021-2024) were analyzed. Two normative methods were applied: (i) a univariate regression-based approach estimating expected scores for each cognitive domain independently, adjusting for age, sex, and education, with percentile-based classification; and (ii) a multivariate regression...
Alphavirus madariaga-associated encephalomyelitis in equines from the Brazilian Pantanal reveals arbovirus circulation in a peri-urban environment. Alphavirus madariaga (MADV), a member of the eastern equine encephalitis virus complex, is an emerging arbovirus in South America, with limited information regarding its occurrence and molecular characterization in equine populations. This study reports the detection and genetic characterization of MADV in equines from the state of Mato Grosso, Brazil. Two horses presenting acute neurological disease with a clinical course of approximately two days were evaluated. Histopathological examination revealed nonsuppurative meningoencephalomyelitis. Molecular screening for neurotropic viruses using T...
Sensory-driven neck-limb coordination mechanisms for walk-trot-gallop gait transitions. Quadruped animals exhibit various gait patterns and switch from one to another depending on their speed. These gait patterns involve complex whole-body coordination and are mainly controlled by a distributed neural network consisting of central pattern generators (CPGs) and peripheral sensory feedback. However, how these neural networks generate various types of whole-body coordination remains unclear. Here, we focus on horse locomotion and present a neural network model that reproduces walk-trot-gallop transitions by changing only a single parameter related to speed. This model uses ground re...
Combined treatment with valacyclovir and heparin reduced the incidence of equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy and improved survival in naturally occurring equine herpesvirus-1 outbreaks. Describe the effects and outcomes of valacyclovir and heparin administration in equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1)-exposed horses. Unassigned: A multicenter retrospective study identified 111 horses naturally exposed to EHV-1 from August 2017 to March 2018. Equine herpesvirus-1 infection was confirmed via blood or nasal secretion PCR. Horses that developed neurologic signs were diagnosed with equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM). Clinical signs, treatment, and survival were reported. A subset of horses was treated with valacyclovir and heparin. Prophylactic medication administration was perf...
Neuroimmune Mechanisms in Equine Asthma: Primary Inflammatory Triggers, Neuroimmune Modulation and Chronic Airway Remodelling. Equine asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease of the lower respiratory tract, primarily associated with inhalation of organic dust, microbial particles and environmental aeroantigens. Although the inflammatory and immunological mechanisms underlying equine asthma have been extensively investigated, the potential contribution of neuroimmune pathways remains poorly understood. In humans and rodent models, asthma is increasingly recognised as a disorder involving complex bidirectional interactions between the nervous and immune systems. Sensory nerve activation, neuropeptide release, autonomic ...
Similar locomotor patterns across Quarter Horse disciplines inform lameness assessment. Lineage-based selection is central to the Quarter Horse industry and is often justified by the assumption that morphology determines locomotor function. However, objective evidence linking static conformation to discipline-specific locomotor behaviour under standardised conditions remains limited. Objective: To investigate whether morphological differences among Quarter Horse disciplines are associated with distinct locomotor patterns or whether locomotor function converges across disciplines despite morphological variation. Methods: Cross-sectional. Methods: Barrel racing, reining, and ranch ...
Machine learning-based gait classification and genome-wide association identify a QTL for gait type in Colombian paso horses. Coordinated mammalian locomotion relies on spinal circuits where regulates strides and alternative gaits. However, does not explain differences between the Colombian paso horse breed's specialized gaits, Colombian trocha and Colombian trot. We used inertial sensors and machine learning to develop accurate phenotyping ( = 225 horses), before performing genome-wide association analysis ( = 85 horses, 670K array). We identified a 2.43 Mb quantitative trait locus (QTL) on ECA16, where haplotypes featuring lead variants (rs1147402472, = 1.95 × 10; rs1136628503, = 8.52 × 10) explained 48.6% of...
Cervical spinal cord compression may affect anesthetic recovery quality and seizure incidence in horses after myelography. To compare anesthetic recovery quality and seizure incidence after cervical myelography in horses with or without cervical spinal cord compression. Unassigned: Anesthesia and medical records from January 2017 to December 2022 of horses anesthetized for myelography were retrieved. Patients with incomplete records, equine protozoal myeloencephalitis diagnosis, or an anesthetic protocol outside an established standard were excluded. Demographic analysis, ataxia score, and anesthetic management variables were recorded in an observational retrospective fashion. Each variable was compared between gr...
A non-trauma-focused equine-assisted intervention was associated with reductions in all four PTSD symptom clusters in treatment-resistant military veterans. Veterans are at greater risk of developing post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and show a poorer response to first-line treatments than civilians. Although equine-assisted interventions (EAIs) represent a promising alternative for military veterans,the underlying mechanisms remain uncertain, and their effectiveness across different PTSD symptom clusters has yet to be established. This study examined the effects of a non-trauma-focused EAI on specific PTSD symptoms in treatment-resistant military veterans. Unassigned: Participants in the intervention were military veterans diagnosed with PTSD...
Cerebral arterial mapping in the equine brain: a detailed anatomical study. Detailed knowledge of the cerebral arterial system in equine brain is required for advancing neuroanatomical understanding and supporting the interpretation of neurological disorders. The equine cerebrum, characterized by extensive cortical organization and functional specialization, requires a continuous arterial blood supply; however, detailed information on its arterial anatomy remains limited. This study aimed to describe the arterial supply to the equine cerebrum, including the origin, branching patterns, and distribution of the major cerebral arteries. Unassigned: Ten adult horse heads w...
Effects of three equine-related training modalities on inhibitory control in children aged 7-8 years: an exploratory randomized controlled trial. Horseback riding training (HRT), horseback riding simulator training (HRST), and horse companion training (HCT) can improve physical fitness, cognitive abilities, and emotional well-being. However, their effects on inhibitory control (IC) are not well studied. Unassigned: This exploratory randomized controlled trial examined the effects of HRT, HRST, and HCT on IC in children aged 7-8 years and analyzed brain neural mechanisms using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Twenty-four children aged 7-8 years from Maple Leaf International School-Xi'an were randomly divided into three grou...
Myofascial trigger points as a primary cause of equine lameness: a biomechanical, neurophysiological, and fascial review. Equine lameness diagnosis is dominated by a joint- and tendon-centric paradigm. The standard diagnostic algorithm relies on gait observation, perineural and intrasynovial anesthesia, and cross-sectional imaging. It is directed almost exclusively at skeletal and articular structures. Myofascial trigger points (MTrPs) are hypersensitive, hyperirritable loci within taut bands of skeletal muscle. They produce local and referred pain on compression or contraction. In horses, MTrPs are a clinically relevant but systematically overlooked source of primary lameness. This review synthesises evidence fr...
Possible Effects of C-Reactive Protein in the Central Nervous System During Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Infection. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is an alphavirus vectored by mosquitos. It can cause disease in equines and humans characterised by a febrile illness that may progress into encephalitis. Replication of VEEV in the central nervous system induces activation of glial cells and neurons, compromising the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and inducing a state of neuroinflammation. This inflammation can lead to symptoms such as confusion, seizures, and coma, and sustained inflammation contributes to neurodegeneration. C-reactive protein (CRP) is a biomarker that has previously been associated wit...
Novel imaging protocol enables myelography of the cervical vertebral column using computed tomography with flexion and extension comparable to x-ray. Radiographic myelography is the traditional diagnostic method for detecting cervical spinal cord compression in horses but it is limited by superimposition and restriction to sagittal plane imaging. Computed tomography (CT) and CT myelography overcome many of these limitations yet previous CT protocols have not allowed dynamic imaging in flexion and extension comparable to radiographs. Objective: To describe and evaluate a novel CT myelography protocol that enables imaging of the equine cervical vertebral column (C to C/T) in flexion, neutral, and extension, and to compare intervertebral angle...
Physical Therapy Intervention With Hippotherapy (HPOT) Affects Balance Control in the Elderly: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Aging is characterized by a decline in functional abilities, strength, balance, flexibility, agility, and coordination due to neurological and muscular changes. Hippotherapy (HPOT) has been recognized for its physical and psychological benefits for older adults. Hence, this study aimed to investigate the effects of hippotherapy on balance in elderly individuals. The novelty lies in using the Biodex Balance System SD for dynamic balance assessment in healthy elderly without neurological disorders. Unassigned: We recruited elderly men aged 60 to 70 who had independent mobility and medical cleara...
Evidence of occipitoatlantoaxial malformations independent of the HOXD3 mutation in an Arabian horse. Occipitoatlantoaxial malformations (OAAM) are developmental disorders occurring at the occiput, atlas and axis. OAAM type 1 is a familial disorder affecting Arabian horses. Currently, a single genetic mutation in the HOXD3 gene region can be tested to confirm the diagnosis. This case describes a 3-year-old Arabian gelding affected with OAAM. Clinical examination revealed a proximal cervical deformation on the right side and severe stiffness of the neck in the sagittal plane without associated pain. Neurological examination demonstrated a generalized proprioceptive ataxia. Radiographs revealed ...
Evaluating Protein Enrichment Methods to Improve Biomarker Discovery in Equine Cerebrospinal Fluid. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a valuable source of biomarkers for neurological diseases, but detection of low-abundance proteins is often masked by highly abundant proteins. Enrichment strategies can enhance proteomic coverage and improve biomarker discovery, yet comparative evaluations of such methods in equine CSF are limited. Objective: This study compared the ProteoMiner Small-Capacity Enrichment Kit and the PreOmics Enrich-iST Kit for their ability to deplete high-abundance proteins and enhance detection of low-abundance proteins relevant to neuropathology. Methods: Equine CSF samples were...
Evaluation and Management of the Horse with Head and Neck Disorders. Recognizing possible causes of equine head and neck problems requires a careful and systematic evaluation. While for some disorders reaching a diagnosis and treatment plan is relatively straightforward, for others this can be a complicated road requiring extensive diagnostic techniques, treatment trials, and management strategies. The ability to determine whether the patient is in a painful state, experiencing functional deficits, or in a combination of pain and dysfunction is critical to developing an effective treatment plan. Frequently, behavioral concerns often associated with pain must be...
