FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Mycopathologia / Equine Pulmonary Cryptococcosis: A Comparative Literature Re...
Mycopathologia2016; 182(3-4); 413-423; doi: 10.1007/s11046-016-0065-9

Equine Pulmonary Cryptococcosis: A Comparative Literature Review and Evaluation of Fluconazole Monotherapy.

Abstract: Cryptococcus is the most common fungal respiratory pathogen in Australian horses, manifesting primarily as pulmonary granulomas. Disease severity at presentation is dependent on the athletic use of the horse. The diagnosis and estimation of disease severity are centred around clinical findings, cytological evaluation of respiratory tract secretions, diagnostic imaging, and antigen titre testing. Both the lateral flow assay and the latex cryptococcal antigen titre are used, and important similarities and differences between species are discussed. Cryptococcus gattii occurs with greater frequency than Cryptococcus neoformans in equine pulmonic cryptococcosis and can be successfully treated with enteral fluconazole monotherapy, with disease severity determining treatment length.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2016-09-21 PubMed ID: 27655152DOI: 10.1007/s11046-016-0065-9Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Case Reports
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research focusses on the manifestation of Cryptococcus, a fungal pathogen, in Australian horses as primarily pulmonary granulomas. It also analyses the efficacy of fluconazole monotherapy for treating this condition.

Disease Presentation

  • The study emphasizes the critical role of Cryptococcus, a fungal pathogen, as the primary culprit for respiratory issues in Australian horses, particularly causing pulmonary granulomas.
  • It’s highlighted that the severity of the infection usually depends on the athletic use of the horse. More intensive or strenuous usage might escalate the disease severity at its initial phase.

Disease Diagnosis and Estimation

  • The primary methods of diagnosing Cryptococcus include clinical evaluation of symptoms, cytological evaluation of respiratory tract secretions, diagnostic imaging, and antigen titre testing.
  • Two specific techniques adopted for diagnosis are the lateral flow assay and the latex cryptococcal antigen titre.
  • Through these diagnostics, the paper acknowledges important similarities and differences between different Cryptococcus species, guiding the subsequent treatment approach.

Types of pathogens and treatment

  • The study identifies Cryptococcus gattii as more prevalent than Cryptococcus neoformans in causing Cryptococcosis in the horses’ respiratory system.
  • Enteral fluconazole monotherapy, an antifungal treatment method, has been found to effectively manage this condition. However, the study underscores the fact that the severity of the disease has a crucial impact on the treatment duration. Highly severe cases may require prolonged treatments to ensure complete disease resolution.

Cite This Article

APA
Secombe CJ, Lester GD, Krockenberger MB. (2016). Equine Pulmonary Cryptococcosis: A Comparative Literature Review and Evaluation of Fluconazole Monotherapy. Mycopathologia, 182(3-4), 413-423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-016-0065-9

Publication

Mycopathologia
ISSN: 1573-0832
NlmUniqueID: 7505689
Country: Netherlands
Language: English
Volume: 182
Issue: 3-4
Pages: 413-423

Researcher Affiliations

Secombe, C J
  • College of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia. csecombe@murdoch.edu.au.
Lester, G D
  • College of Veterinary Medicine, School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, South Street, Murdoch, WA, 6150, Australia.
Krockenberger, M B
  • Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, 2006, Australia.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Antifungal Agents / therapeutic use
  • Cryptococcosis / diagnosis
  • Cryptococcosis / microbiology
  • Cryptococcosis / pathology
  • Cryptococcosis / veterinary
  • Cryptococcus / isolation & purification
  • Female
  • Fluconazole / therapeutic use
  • Horse Diseases / diagnosis
  • Horse Diseases / drug therapy
  • Horse Diseases / pathology
  • Horses
  • Lung Diseases, Fungal / diagnosis
  • Lung Diseases, Fungal / drug therapy
  • Lung Diseases, Fungal / pathology
  • Lung Diseases, Fungal / veterinary
  • Male
  • Treatment Outcome

References

This article includes 62 references
  1. Higgins JC, Leith GS, Pappagianis D, Pusterla N. Treatment of Coccidioides immitis pneumonia in two horses with fluconazole.. Vet Rec 2006 Sep 9;159(11):349-51.
    pubmed: 16963715doi: 10.1136/vr.159.11.349google scholar: lookup
  2. Lindsley MD, Mekha N, Baggett HC, Surinthong Y, Autthateinchai R, Sawatwong P, Harris JR, Park BJ, Chiller T, Balajee SA, Poonwan N. Evaluation of a newly developed lateral flow immunoassay for the diagnosis of cryptococcosis.. Clin Infect Dis 2011 Aug;53(4):321-5.
    pubmed: 21810743doi: 10.1093/cid/cir379google scholar: lookup
  3. McGill S, Malik R, Saul N, Beetson S, Secombe C, Robertson I, Irwin P. Cryptococcosis in domestic animals in Western Australia: a retrospective study from 1995-2006.. Med Mycol 2009;47(6):625-39.
    pubmed: 19306217doi: 10.1080/13693780802512519google scholar: lookup
  4. Lu H, Zhou Y, Yin Y, Pan X, Weng X. Cryptococcal antigen test revisited: significance for cryptococcal meningitis therapy monitoring in a tertiary chinese hospital.. J Clin Microbiol 2005 Jun;43(6):2989-90.
    pubmed: 15956440doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.6.2989-2990.2005google scholar: lookup
  5. Krockenberger MB, Canfield PJ, Barnes J, Vogelnest L, Connolly J, Ley C, Malik R. Cryptococcus neoformans var. gattii in the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus): serological evidence for subclinical cryptococcosis.. Med Mycol 2002 Jun;40(3):273-82.
    pubmed: 12146757doi: 10.1080/mmy.40.3.273.282google scholar: lookup
  6. Ghannoum MA, Rex JH, Galgiani JN. Susceptibility testing of fungi: current status of correlation of in vitro data with clinical outcome.. J Clin Microbiol 1996 Mar;34(3):489-95.
    pubmed: 8904400doi: 10.1128/jcm.34.3.489-495.1996google scholar: lookup
  7. McMullan BJ, Sorrell TC, Chen SC. Cryptococcus gattii infections: contemporary aspects of epidemiology, clinical manifestations and management of infection.. Future Microbiol 2013 Dec;8(12):1613-31.
    pubmed: 24266360doi: 10.2217/fmb.13.123google scholar: lookup
  8. Wu B, Liu H, Huang J, Zhang W, Zhang T. Pulmonary cryptococcosis in non-AIDS patients.. Clin Invest Med 2009 Feb 1;32(1):E70-7.
    pubmed: 19178882doi: 10.25011/cim.v32i1.5090google scholar: lookup
  9. Percival A, Thorkildson P, Kozel TR. Monoclonal antibodies specific for immunorecessive epitopes of glucuronoxylomannan, the major capsular polysaccharide of Cryptococcus neoformans, reduce serotype bias in an immunoassay for cryptococcal antigen.. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2011 Aug;18(8):1292-6.
    pubmed: 21697342doi: 10.1128/CVI.05052-11google scholar: lookup
  10. Vilchez RA, Fung J, Kusne S. Cryptococcosis in organ transplant recipients: an overview.. Am J Transplant 2002 Aug;2(7):575-80.
    pubmed: 12201357doi: 10.1034/j.1600-6143.2002.20701.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  11. Lester SJ, Kowalewich NJ, Bartlett KH, Krockenberger MB, Fairfax TM, Malik R. Clinicopathologic features of an unusual outbreak of cryptococcosis in dogs, cats, ferrets, and a bird: 38 cases (January to July 2003).. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004 Dec 1;225(11):1716-22.
    pubmed: 15626222doi: 10.2460/javma.2004.225.1716google scholar: lookup
  12. Perfect JR, Dismukes WE, Dromer F, Goldman DL, Graybill JR, Hamill RJ, Harrison TS, Larsen RA, Lortholary O, Nguyen MH, Pappas PG, Powderly WG, Singh N, Sobel JD, Sorrell TC. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of cryptococcal disease: 2010 update by the infectious diseases society of america.. Clin Infect Dis 2010 Feb 1;50(3):291-322.
    pubmed: 20047480doi: 10.1086/649858google scholar: lookup
  13. Riley CB, Bolton JR, Mills JN, Thomas JB. Cryptococcosis in seven horses.. Aust Vet J 1992 Jun;69(6):135-9.
    pubmed: 1642596doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1992.tb07482.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  14. Begg LM, Hughes KJ, Kessell A, Krockenberger MB, Wigney DI, Malik R. Successful treatment of cryptococcal pneumonia in a pony mare.. Aust Vet J 2004 Nov;82(11):686-92.
    pubmed: 15977613doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2004.tb12155.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  15. Choi KH, Park SJ, Min KH, Kim SR, Lee MH, Chung CR, Han HJ, Lee YC. Treatment of asymptomatic pulmonary cryptococcosis in immunocompetent hosts with oral fluconazole.. Scand J Infect Dis 2011 May;43(5):380-5.
    pubmed: 21271944doi: 10.3109/00365548.2011.552521google scholar: lookup
  16. Trivedi SR, Malik R, Meyer W, Sykes JE. Feline cryptococcosis: impact of current research on clinical management.. J Feline Med Surg 2011 Mar;13(3):163-72.
    pubmed: 21338941doi: 10.1016/j.jfms.2011.01.009google scholar: lookup
  17. Barton MD, Knight I. Cryptococcal meningitis of a horse.. Aust Vet J 1972 Sep;48(9):534.
    pubmed: 4651127doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1972.tb02326.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  18. Malik R, McPetrie R, Wigney DI, Craig AJ, Love DN. A latex cryptococcal antigen agglutination test for diagnosis and monitoring of therapy for cryptococcosis.. Aust Vet J 1996 Nov;74(5):358-64.
    pubmed: 8941415doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1996.tb15445.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  19. Park BJ, Wannemuehler KA, Marston BJ, Govender N, Pappas PG, Chiller TM. Estimation of the current global burden of cryptococcal meningitis among persons living with HIV/AIDS.. AIDS 2009 Feb 20;23(4):525-30.
    pubmed: 19182676doi: 10.1097/QAD.0b013e328322ffacgoogle scholar: lookup
  20. Choe YH, Moon H, Park SJ, Kim SR, Han HJ, Lee KS, Lee YC. Pulmonary cryptococcosis in asymptomatic immunocompetent hosts.. Scand J Infect Dis 2009;41(8):602-7.
    pubmed: 19513938doi: 10.1080/00365540903036212google scholar: lookup
  21. Lester SJ, Malik R, Bartlett KH, Duncan CG. Cryptococcosis: update and emergence of Cryptococcus gattii.. Vet Clin Pathol 2011 Mar;40(1):4-17.
    pubmed: 21244455doi: 10.1111/j.1939-165X.2010.00281.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  22. Cruz VC, Sommardahl CS, Chapman EA, Fry MM, Schumacher J. Successful treatment of a sinonasal cryptococcal granuloma in a horse.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2009 Feb 15;234(4):509-13.
    pubmed: 19222362doi: 10.2460/javma.234.4.509google scholar: lookup
  23. Boulton CH, Williamson L. Cryptococcal granuloma associated with jejunal intussusception in a horse.. Equine Vet J 1984 Nov;16(6):548-51.
    pubmed: 6519049doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1984.tb02018.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  24. McMullan BJ, Halliday C, Sorrell TC, Judd D, Sleiman S, Marriott D, Olma T, Chen SC. Clinical utility of the cryptococcal antigen lateral flow assay in a diagnostic mycology laboratory.. PLoS One 2012;7(11):e49541.
    pubmed: 23166705doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0049541google scholar: lookup
  25. Babady NE, Bestrom JE, Jespersen DJ, Jones MF, Beito EM, Binnicker MJ, Wengenack NL. Evaluation of three commercial latex agglutination kits and a commercial enzyme immunoassay for the detection of cryptococcal antigen.. Med Mycol 2009 May;47(3):336-8.
    pubmed: 19194818doi: 10.1080/13693780802607400google scholar: lookup
  26. Hagen F, Illnait-Zaragozi MT, Bartlett KH, Swinne D, Geertsen E, Klaassen CH, Boekhout T, Meis JF. In vitro antifungal susceptibilities and amplified fragment length polymorphism genotyping of a worldwide collection of 350 clinical, veterinary, and environmental Cryptococcus gattii isolates.. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010 Dec;54(12):5139-45.
    pubmed: 20855729doi: 10.1128/AAC.00746-10google scholar: lookup
  27. Hung MS, Tsai YH, Lee CH, Yang CT. Pulmonary cryptococcosis: Clinical, radiographical and serological markers of dissemination.. Respirology 2008 Mar;13(2):247-51.
    pubmed: 18339023doi: 10.1111/j.1440-1843.2007.01202.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  28. Stewart AJ, Salazar T, Waldridge BM, Schumacher J, Welles EG, Hanson RR, Sartin EA, Lenz SD, Holland M, Beard DM. Multimodal treatment of recurrent sinonasal cryptococcal granulomas in a horse.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2009 Sep 15;235(6):723-30.
    pubmed: 19751170doi: 10.2460/javma.235.6.723google scholar: lookup
  29. Hart KA, Flaminio MJ, LeRoy BE, Williams CO, Dietrich UM, Barton MH. Successful resolution of cryptococcal meningitis and optic neuritis in an adult horse with oral fluconazole.. J Vet Intern Med 2008 Nov-Dec;22(6):1436-40.
    pubmed: 18823407doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2008.0189.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  30. Chong HS, Dagg R, Malik R, Chen S, Carter D. In vitro susceptibility of the yeast pathogen cryptococcus to fluconazole and other azoles varies with molecular genotype.. J Clin Microbiol 2010 Nov;48(11):4115-20.
    pubmed: 20844209doi: 10.1128/JCM.01271-10google scholar: lookup
  31. Jacobs GJ, Medleau L, Calvert C, Brown J. Cryptococcal infection in cats: factors influencing treatment outcome, and results of sequential serum antigen titers in 35 cats.. J Vet Intern Med 1997 Jan-Feb;11(1):1-4.
    pubmed: 9132477doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.1997.tb00064.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  32. Ryan MJ, Wyand DS. Cryptococcus as a cause of neonatal pneumonia and abortion in two horses.. Vet Pathol 1981 Mar;18(2):270-2.
    pubmed: 7467086doi: 10.1177/030098588101800216google scholar: lookup
  33. Grooters AM, Taboada J. Update on antifungal therapy.. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2003 Jul;33(4):749-58, vi.
    pubmed: 12910741doi: 10.1016/s0195-5616(03)00038-xgoogle scholar: lookup
  34. Petrites-Murphy MB, Robbins LA, Donahue JM, Smith B. Equine cryptococcal endometritis and placentitis with neonatal cryptococcal pneumonia.. J Vet Diagn Invest 1996 Jul;8(3):383-6.
    pubmed: 8844586doi: 10.1177/104063879600800319google scholar: lookup
  35. Lin TY, Yeh KM, Lin JC, Wang NC, Peng MY, Chang FY. Cryptococcal disease in patients with or without human immunodeficiency virus: clinical presentation and monitoring of serum cryptococcal antigen titers.. J Microbiol Immunol Infect 2009 Jun;42(3):220-6.
    pubmed: 19812855
  36. Chang WC, Tzao C, Hsu HH, Lee SC, Huang KL, Tung HJ, Chen CY. Pulmonary cryptococcosis: comparison of clinical and radiographic characteristics in immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients.. Chest 2006 Feb;129(2):333-340.
    pubmed: 16478849doi: 10.1378/chest.129.2.333google scholar: lookup
  37. Chayakulkeeree M, Perfect JR. Cryptococcosis.. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2006 Sep;20(3):507-44, v-vi.
    pubmed: 16984867doi: 10.1016/j.idc.2006.07.001google scholar: lookup
  38. Chandna VK, Morris E, Gliatto JM, Paradis MR. Localised subcutaneous cryptococcal granuloma in a horse.. Equine Vet J 1993 Mar;25(2):166-8.
    pubmed: 8467779doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1993.tb02931.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  39. Perfect JR. Fungal diagnosis: how do we do it and can we do better?. Curr Med Res Opin 2013 Apr;29 Suppl 4:3-11.
    pubmed: 23621588doi: 10.1185/03007995.2012.761134google scholar: lookup
  40. Troke PF, Andrews RJ, Pye GW, Richardson K. Fluconazole and other azoles: translation of in vitro activity to in vivo and clinical efficacy.. Rev Infect Dis 1990 Mar-Apr;12 Suppl 3:S276-80.
    pubmed: 2184505doi: 10.1093/clinids/12.supplement_3.s276google scholar: lookup
  41. BLOOMFIELD N, GORDON MA, ELMENDORF DF Jr. DETECTION OF CRYPTOCOCCUS NEOFORMANS ANTIGEN IN BODY FLUIDS BY LATEX PARTICLE AGGLUTINATION.. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med 1963 Oct;114:64-7.
    pubmed: 14076914doi: 10.3181/00379727-114-28586google scholar: lookup
  42. MacDougall L, Fyfe M. Emergence of Cryptococcus gattii in a novel environment provides clues to its incubation period.. J Clin Microbiol 2006 May;44(5):1851-2.
    pubmed: 16672420doi: 10.1128/JCM.44.5.1851-1852.2006google scholar: lookup
  43. Malik R, Craig AJ, Wigney DI, Martin P, Love DN. Combination chemotherapy of canine and feline cryptococcosis using subcutaneously administered amphotericin B.. Aust Vet J 1996 Apr;73(4):124-8.
    pubmed: 8660225doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1996.tb10003.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  44. Medleau L, Marks MA, Brown J, Borges WL. Clinical evaluation of a cryptococcal antigen latex agglutination test for diagnosis of cryptococcosis in cats.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1990 May 1;196(9):1470-3.
    pubmed: 2341319
  45. Pennisi MG, Hartmann K, Lloret A, Ferrer L, Addie D, Belák S, Boucraut-Baralon C, Egberink H, Frymus T, Gruffydd-Jones T, Hosie MJ, Lutz H, Marsilio F, Möstl K, Radford AD, Thiry E, Truyen U, Horzinek MC. Cryptococcosis in cats: ABCD guidelines on prevention and management.. J Feline Med Surg 2013 Jul;15(7):611-8.
    pubmed: 23813826doi: 10.1177/1098612X13489224google scholar: lookup
  46. Gates-Hollingsworth MA, Kozel TR. Serotype sensitivity of a lateral flow immunoassay for cryptococcal antigen.. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2013 Apr;20(4):634-5.
    pubmed: 23365202doi: 10.1128/CVI.00732-12google scholar: lookup
  47. O'Brien CR, Krockenberger MB, Martin P, Wigney DI, Malik R. Long-term outcome of therapy for 59 cats and 11 dogs with cryptococcosis.. Aust Vet J 2006 Nov;84(11):384-92.
    pubmed: 17092323doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2006.00040.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  48. Perfect JR, Casadevall A. Cryptococcosis.. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2002 Dec;16(4):837-74, v-vi.
    pubmed: 12512184doi: 10.1016/s0891-5520(02)00036-3google scholar: lookup
  49. Lenard ZM, Lester NV, O'hara AJ, Hopper BJ, Lester GD. Disseminated cryptococcosis including osteomyelitis in a horse.. Aust Vet J 2007 Jan-Feb;85(1-2):51-5; quiz 85.
    pubmed: 17300456doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2006.00060.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  50. Chen SC, Slavin MA, Heath CH, Playford EG, Byth K, Marriott D, Kidd SE, Bak N, Currie B, Hajkowicz K, Korman TM, McBride WJ, Meyer W, Murray R, Sorrell TC. Clinical manifestations of Cryptococcus gattii infection: determinants of neurological sequelae and death.. Clin Infect Dis 2012 Sep;55(6):789-98.
    pubmed: 22670042doi: 10.1093/cid/cis529google scholar: lookup
  51. Ye F, Xie JX, Zeng QS, Chen GQ, Zhong SQ, Zhong NS. Retrospective analysis of 76 immunocompetent patients with primary pulmonary cryptococcosis.. Lung 2012 Jun;190(3):339-46.
    pubmed: 22246551doi: 10.1007/s00408-011-9362-8google scholar: lookup
  52. Hilbert BJ, Huxtable CR, Pawley SE. Cryptococcal pneumonia in a horse.. Aust Vet J 1980 Aug;56(8):391-2.
    pubmed: 7002144doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1980.tb09566.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  53. Latimer FG, Colitz CM, Campbell NB, Papich MG. Pharmacokinetics of fluconazole following intravenous and oral administration and body fluid concentrations of fluconazole following repeated oral dosing in horses.. Am J Vet Res 2001 Oct;62(10):1606-11.
    pubmed: 11592327doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2001.62.1606google scholar: lookup
  54. Chen S, Sorrell T, Nimmo G, Speed B, Currie B, Ellis D, Marriott D, Pfeiffer T, Parr D, Byth K. Epidemiology and host- and variety-dependent characteristics of infection due to Cryptococcus neoformans in Australia and New Zealand. Australasian Cryptococcal Study Group.. Clin Infect Dis 2000 Aug;31(2):499-508.
    pubmed: 10987712doi: 10.1086/313992google scholar: lookup
  55. Chen SC, Korman TM, Slavin MA, Marriott D, Byth K, Bak N, Currie BJ, Hajkowicz K, Heath CH, Kidd S, McBride WJ, Meyer W, Murray R, Playford EG, Sorrell TC. Antifungal therapy and management of complications of cryptococcosis due to Cryptococcus gattii.. Clin Infect Dis 2013 Aug;57(4):543-51.
    pubmed: 23697747doi: 10.1093/cid/cit341google scholar: lookup
  56. Nadrous HF, Antonios VS, Terrell CL, Ryu JH. Pulmonary cryptococcosis in nonimmunocompromised patients.. Chest 2003 Dec;124(6):2143-7.
    pubmed: 14665493doi: 10.1016/s0012-3692(15)31671-8google scholar: lookup
  57. Taintor J, Crowe C, Hancock S, Schumacher J, Livesey L. Treatment of conidiobolomycosis with fluconazole in two pregnant mares.. J Vet Intern Med 2004 May-Jun;18(3):363-4.
    pubmed: 15188826doi: 10.1892/0891-6640(2004)18<363:tocwfi>2.0.co;2google scholar: lookup
  58. Blanchard PC, Filkins M. Cryptococcal pneumonia and abortion in an equine fetus.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1992 Nov 15;201(10):1591-2.
    pubmed: 1289342
  59. Temstet A, Roux P, Poirot JL, Ronin O, Dromer F. Evaluation of a monoclonal antibody-based latex agglutination test for diagnosis of cryptococcosis: comparison with two tests using polyclonal antibodies.. J Clin Microbiol 1992 Oct;30(10):2544-50.
    pubmed: 1400951doi: 10.1128/jcm.30.10.2544-2550.1992google scholar: lookup
  60. Boulware DR, Rolfes MA, Rajasingham R, von Hohenberg M, Qin Z, Taseera K, Schutz C, Kwizera R, Butler EK, Meintjes G, Muzoora C, Bischof JC, Meya DB. Multisite validation of cryptococcal antigen lateral flow assay and quantification by laser thermal contrast.. Emerg Infect Dis 2014 Jan;20(1):45-53.
    pubmed: 24378231doi: 10.3201/eid2001.130906google scholar: lookup
  61. Dickson J, Meyer EP. Cryptococcosis in horses in Western Australia.. Aust Vet J 1970 Nov;46(11):558.
    pubmed: 5530552doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1970.tb06653.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  62. Speed B, Dunt D. Clinical and host differences between infections with the two varieties of Cryptococcus neoformans.. Clin Infect Dis 1995 Jul;21(1):28-34; discussion 35-6.
    pubmed: 7578756doi: 10.1093/clinids/21.1.28google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 8 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,357 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.