FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Parasites & vectors2019; 12(1); 234; doi: 10.1186/s13071-019-3484-x

Equine trypanosomosis: enigmas and diagnostic challenges.

Abstract: Equine trypanosomosis is a complex of infectious diseases called dourine, nagana and surra. It is caused by several species of the genus Trypanosoma that are transmitted cyclically by tsetse flies, mechanically by other haematophagous flies, or sexually. Trypanosoma congolense (subgenus Nannomonas) and T. vivax (subgenus Dutonella) are genetically and morphologically distinct from T. brucei, T. equiperdum and T. evansi (subgenus Trypanozoon). It remains controversial whether the three latter taxa should be considered distinct species. Recent outbreaks of surra and dourine in Europe illustrate the risk and consequences of importation of equine trypanosomosis with infected animals into non-endemic countries. Knowledge on the epidemiological situation is fragmentary since many endemic countries do not report the diseases to the World Organisation for Animal Health, OIE. Other major obstacles to the control of equine trypanosomosis are the lack of vaccines, the inability of drugs to cure the neurological stage of the disease, the inconsistent case definition and the limitations of current diagnostics. Especially in view of the ever-increasing movement of horses around the globe, there is not only the obvious need for reliable curative and prophylactic drugs but also for accurate diagnostic tests and algorithms. Unfortunately, clinical signs are not pathognomonic, parasitological tests are not sufficiently sensitive, serological tests miss sensitivity or specificity, and molecular tests cannot distinguish the taxa within the Trypanozoon subgenus. To address the limitations of the current diagnostics for equine trypanosomosis, we recommend studies into improved molecular and serological tests with the highest possible sensitivity and specificity. We realise that this is an ambitious goal, but it is dictated by needs at the point of care. However, depending on available treatment options, it may not always be necessary to identify which trypanosome taxon is responsible for a given infection.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2019-05-15 PubMed ID: 31092285PubMed Central: PMC6518633DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3484-xGoogle Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Equine trypanosomosis is a group of infectious diseases that pose a significant diagnostic and treatment challenge. The diseases, which include dourine, nagana, and surra, are caused by different species of the parasite Trypanosoma, and are transmitted by flies or sexually. There are current debates about the taxonomic classification of the different Trypanosoma species. Recent outbreaks in Europe demonstrate the need for enhanced control and management strategies, including development of effective diagnostics and treatment approaches. Current diagnostic methods are unreliable and improved diagnostic procedures are needed.

Understanding Equine Trypanosomosis

  • Equine trypanosomosis is a collection of infectious diseases that primarily affect horses. The diseases within this group include dourine, nagana, and surra.
  • Equine trypanosomosis is caused by several species from the parasite genus Trypanosoma. These parasites are transmitted in various ways, either cyclically by tsetse flies, mechanically by other blood-sucking flies, or sexually.
  • Notable species that cause these diseases are Trypanosoma congolense, T. vivax, T. brucei, T. equiperdum, and T. evansi. They are genotypically and phenotypically distinct, hence the question of whether they should be classified as separate taxa.
  • Equine trypanosomosis holds significant ramifications for horses worldwide, mainly due to its ability to spread from endemic regions to non-endemic countries through the movement of infected animals.

Challenges in Diagnosis and Treatment

  • The paper acknowledges the several challenges that exist in managing these diseases. The epidemiology of equine trypanosomosis is not well-understood, primarily due to poor reporting by endemic countries to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE).
  • There is also a lack of vaccines to help prevent the diseases, and current drugs are incapable of treating the neurological stage of the disease.
  • The inconsistency in case definition and the limitations of current diagnostics present major obstacles in the detection and management of equine trypanosomosis.
  • The authors argue that much-needed improvements in the accuracy of diagnostic tests are required, particularly to meet the increasing global horse movement. Likewise, the development of effective curative and prophylactic drugs is also crucial.

Future Directions for Research

  • The authors recommend research into improved diagnostic methods, including enhanced molecular and serological tests, to address the identified limitations.
  • Understanding the needs from a point of care perspective is crucial in developing these diagnostic improvements. However, the authors acknowledge that based on available treatment options, it may not always be essential to identify the specific trypanosome causing the infection.

Cite This Article

APA
(2019). Equine trypanosomosis: enigmas and diagnostic challenges. Parasit Vectors, 12(1), 234. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-019-3484-x

Publication

Parasites & vectors
ISSN: 1756-3305
NlmUniqueID: 101462774
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 12
Issue: 1
Pages: 234
PII: 234

Researcher Affiliations

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Dourine / diagnosis
  • Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay
  • Horse Diseases / diagnosis
  • Horse Diseases / parasitology
  • Horses
  • Molecular Diagnostic Techniques / veterinary
  • Polymerase Chain Reaction
  • Sensitivity and Specificity
  • Serologic Tests
  • Trypanosoma / classification
  • Trypanosoma / pathogenicity
  • Trypanosoma brucei brucei / pathogenicity
  • Trypanosoma congolense / pathogenicity
  • Trypanosoma vivax / pathogenicity
  • Trypanosomiasis / diagnosis
  • Trypanosomiasis / veterinary

Grant Funding

  • MR/L019701/1 / Medical Research Council
  • Senior Non-Clinical Fellowship MR/L019701/1 / UK Medical Research Council
  • OPP1174221-2018 / Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

References

This article includes 89 references
  1. Bryan LK, Hamer SA, Shaw S, Curtis-Robles R, Auckland LD, Hodo CL, Chaffin K, Rech RR. Chagas disease in a Texan horse with neurologic deficits.. Vet Parasitol 2016 Jan 30;216:13-7.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.11.016pmc: PMC7594015pubmed: 26801589google scholar: lookup
  2. Taylor K, Authié E. Pathogenesis of animal trypanosomiasis.. .
  3. McCully RM, Neitz WO. Clinicopathological study on experimental Trypanosma brucei infections in horses. 2. Histopathological findings in the nervous system and other organs of treated and untreated horses reacting to nagana.. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 1971 Sep;38(3):141-75.
    pubmed: 5164810
  4. Neitz WO, McCully M. Clinicopathological study on experimental Trypanosoma brucei infections in horses. 1. Development of clinically recognizable nervous symptoms in nagana-infected horses treated with subcurative doses of Antrypol and Berenil.. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 1971 Sep;38(3):127-39.
    pubmed: 5164811
  5. Van den Bossche P. Equine trypanosomiasis.. .
  6. Pascucci I, Di Provvido A, Cammà C, Di Francesco G, Calistri P, Tittarelli M, Ferri N, Scacchia M, Caporale V. Diagnosis of dourine in outbreaks in Italy.. Vet Parasitol 2013 Mar 31;193(1-3):30-8.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.12.006pubmed: 23298562google scholar: lookup
  7. Ahmed Y, Hagos A, Merga B, Van Soom A, Duchateau L, Goddeeris B. Trypanosoma equiperdum in the horse—a neglected threat?. Vlaams Diergeneeskd Tijdschr 2018;87:66–75.
  8. Wang ZL. The similarities and differences of the characteristics between T. equiperdum and T. evansi.. Bull Vet Col 1988;8:300–303.
  9. Uche UE, Jones TW. Pathology of experimental Trypanosoma evansi infection in rabbits.. J Comp Pathol 1992 Apr;106(3):299-309.
    doi: 10.1016/0021-9975(92)90057-2pubmed: 1602062google scholar: lookup
  10. Raina AK, Kumar R, Rajora VS, Sridhar, Singh RP. Oral transmission of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dogs and mice.. Vet Parasitol 1985 Jun;18(1):67-9.
    doi: 10.1016/0304-4017(85)90009-3pubmed: 4049728google scholar: lookup
  11. Sinha PK, Mukherjee GS, Das MS, Lahiri RK. Outbreak of trypanosomiasis evansi amongst tigers and jaguars in the zoological garden, Calcutta.. Indian Vet J 1971 Mar;48(3):306-10.
    pubmed: 5103629
  12. Aregawi WG, Agga GE, Abdi RD, Büscher P. Systematic review and meta-analysis on the global distribution, host range, and prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi.. Parasit Vectors 2019 Jan 31;12(1):67.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-019-3311-4pmc: PMC6357473pubmed: 30704516google scholar: lookup
  13. Giordani F, Morrison LJ, Rowan TG, DE Koning HP, Barrett MP. The animal trypanosomiases and their chemotherapy: a review.. Parasitology 2016 Dec;143(14):1862-1889.
    doi: 10.1017/S0031182016001268pmc: PMC5142301pubmed: 27719692google scholar: lookup
  14. Desquesnes M, Dargantes A, Lai DH, Lun ZR, Holzmuller P, Jittapalapong S. Trypanosoma evansi and surra: a review and perspectives on transmission, epidemiology and control, impact, and zoonotic aspects.. Biomed Res Int 2013;2013:321237.
    pmc: PMC3789323pubmed: 24151595doi: 10.1155/2013/321237google scholar: lookup
  15. Desquesnes M, Holzmuller P, Lai DH, Dargantes A, Lun ZR, Jittaplapong S. Trypanosoma evansi and surra: a review and perspectives on origin, history, distribution, taxonomy, morphology, hosts, and pathogenic effects.. Biomed Res Int 2013;2013:194176.
    pmc: PMC3760267pubmed: 24024184doi: 10.1155/2013/194176google scholar: lookup
  16. Suganuma K, Narantsatsral S, Battur B, Yamasaki S, Otgonsuren D, Musinguzi SP, Davaasuren B, Battsetseg B, Inoue N. Isolation, cultivation and molecular characterization of a new Trypanosoma equiperdum strain in Mongolia.. Parasit Vectors 2016 Aug 31;9(1):481.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-016-1755-3pmc: PMC5007690pubmed: 27580944google scholar: lookup
  17. Sánchez E, Perrone T, Recchimuzzi G, Cardozo I, Biteau N, Aso PM, Mijares A, Baltz T, Berthier D, Balzano-Nogueira L, Gonzatti MI. Molecular characterization and classification of Trypanosoma spp. Venezuelan isolates based on microsatellite markers and kinetoplast maxicircle genes.. Parasit Vectors 2015 Oct 15;8:536.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-015-1129-2pmc: PMC4607141pubmed: 26467019google scholar: lookup
  18. Birhanu H, Fikru R, Said M, Kidane W, Gebrehiwot T, Hagos A, Alemu T, Dawit T, Berkvens D, Goddeeris BM, Büscher P. Epidemiology of Trypanosoma evansi and Trypanosoma vivax in domestic animals from selected districts of Tigray and Afar regions, Northern Ethiopia.. Parasit Vectors 2015 Apr 9;8:212.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-015-0818-1pmc: PMC4403896pubmed: 25889702google scholar: lookup
  19. Gari FR, Ashenafi H, Tola A, Goddeeris BM, Claes F. Comparative diagnosis of parasitological, serological, and molecular tests in dourine-suspected horses.. Trop Anim Health Prod 2010 Dec;42(8):1649-54.
    doi: 10.1007/s11250-010-9615-1pubmed: 20526860google scholar: lookup
  20. Hagos A. Equine trypanosomosis in Ethiopia: epidemiology, characterization and control.. .
  21. Schmitt Nunes JT, Schafer da Silva A, de Souza Dorneles F, Tonin AA, Lazzarotto C, Miletti LC. Occurrenece of Trypanosoma evansi in horses in the state of Minas Gerais, Brazil.. J Equine Vet Sci 2012;32:205–207.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2011.08.023google scholar: lookup
  22. Alsam A, Chaudhary ZI, Rehman H, Ashraf K, Ahmad N, Maqbool A. Comparative evaluation of parasitological, serological and DNA amplification methods for diagnosis of natural trypanosomal infection in equines.. Pak Vet J 2010;42:371–376.
  23. Ul Hasan M, Muhammad G, Gutierrez C, Iqbal Z, Shakoor A, Jabbar A. Prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi infection in equines and camels in the Punjab region, Pakistan.. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006 Oct;1081:322-4.
    doi: 10.1196/annals.1373.043pubmed: 17135532google scholar: lookup
  24. Da Silva AS, Garcia Perez HA, Costa MM, França RT, De Gasperi D, Zanette RA, Amado JA, Lopes ST, Teixeira MM, Monteiro SG. Horses naturally infected by Trypanosoma vivax in southern Brazil.. Parasitol Res 2011 Jan;108(1):23-30.
    doi: 10.1007/s00436-010-2036-2pubmed: 20820805google scholar: lookup
  25. Salim B, Bakheit MA, Sugimoto C. Molecular detection of equine trypanosomes in the Sudan.. Vet Parasitol 2014 Mar 1;200(3-4):246-50.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.09.002pubmed: 24439848google scholar: lookup
  26. Mekonnen G, Mohammed EF, Kidane W, Nesibu A, Yohannes H, Van Reet N, Büscher P, Birhanu H. Isometamidium chloride and homidium chloride fail to cure mice infected with Ethiopian Trypanosoma evansi type A and B.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2018 Sep;12(9):e0006790.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006790pmc: PMC6152993pubmed: 30208034google scholar: lookup
  27. Cauchard J, Carnicer D, Madeline A, Guitton E, Giraudet A, Büscher P. Evaluation of melarsamine hydrochloride (Cymelarsan) efficacy for the treatment of dourine.. J Equine Vet Sci 2016;39:S51.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2016.02.111google scholar: lookup
  28. Auty H, Mundy A, Fyumagwa RD, Picozzi K, Welburn S, Hoare R. Health management of horses under high challenge from trypanosomes: a case study from Serengeti, Tanzania.. Vet Parasitol 2008 Jul 4;154(3-4):233-41.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.02.034pubmed: 18450381google scholar: lookup
  29. Ranjithkumar M, Saravanan BC, Yadav SC, Kumar R, Singh R, Dey S. Neurological trypanosomiasis in quinapyramine sulfate-treated horses--a breach of the blood-brain barrier?. Trop Anim Health Prod 2014 Feb;46(2):371-7.
    doi: 10.1007/s11250-013-0498-9pubmed: 24197687google scholar: lookup
  30. Hébert L, Guitton E, Madeline A, Géraud T, Zientara S, Laugier C, Hans A, Büscher P, Cauchard J, Petry S. Melarsomine hydrochloride (Cymelarsan(®)) fails to cure horses with Trypanosoma equiperdum OVI parasites in their cerebrospinal fluid.. Vet Parasitol 2018 Dec 15;264:47-51.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2018.11.005pubmed: 30503091google scholar: lookup
  31. Tamarit A, Gutierrez C, Arroyo R, Jimenez V, Zagalá G, Bosch I, Sirvent J, Alberola J, Alonso I, Caballero C. Trypanosoma evansi infection in mainland Spain.. Vet Parasitol 2010 Jan 20;167(1):74-6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.09.050pubmed: 19864069google scholar: lookup
  32. Gutierrez C, Desquesnes M, Touratier L, Büscher P. Trypanosoma evansi: recent outbreaks in Europe.. Vet Parasitol 2010 Nov 24;174(1-2):26-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2010.08.012pubmed: 20851526google scholar: lookup
  33. Calistri P, Narcisi V, Atzeni M, De Massis F, Tittarelli M, Mercante MT. Dourine reemergence in Italy.. J Equine Vet Sci 2013;33:83–89.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2012.05.057google scholar: lookup
  34. Dominguez M, Münstermann S, de Guindos I, Timoney P. Equine disease events resulting from international horse movements: Systematic review and lessons learned.. Equine Vet J 2016 Sep;48(5):641-53.
    pubmed: 26509734doi: 10.1111/evj.12523google scholar: lookup
  35. Hoare CA. The trypanosomes of mammals.. .
  36. Lai DH, Hashimi H, Lun ZR, Ayala FJ, Lukes J. Adaptations of Trypanosoma brucei to gradual loss of kinetoplast DNA: Trypanosoma equiperdum and Trypanosoma evansi are petite mutants of T. brucei.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2008 Feb 12;105(6):1999-2004.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.0711799105pmc: PMC2538871pubmed: 18245376google scholar: lookup
  37. Wen YZ, Lun ZR, Zhu XQ, Hide G, Lai DH. Further evidence from SSCP and ITS DNA sequencing support Trypanosoma evansi and Trypanosoma equiperdum as subspecies or even strains of Trypanosoma brucei.. Infect Genet Evol 2016 Jul;41:56-62.
    doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2016.03.022pubmed: 27016375google scholar: lookup
  38. Carnes J, Anupama A, Balmer O, Jackson A, Lewis M, Brown R, Cestari I, Desquesnes M, Gendrin C, Hertz-Fowler C, Imamura H, Ivens A, Kořený L, Lai DH, MacLeod A, McDermott SM, Merritt C, Monnerat S, Moon W, Myler P, Phan I, Ramasamy G, Sivam D, Lun ZR, Lukeš J, Stuart K, Schnaufer A. Genome and phylogenetic analyses of Trypanosoma evansi reveal extensive similarity to T. brucei and multiple independent origins for dyskinetoplasty.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015 Jan;9(1):e3404.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003404pmc: PMC4288722pubmed: 25568942google scholar: lookup
  39. Claes F, Agbo EC, Radwanska M, Te Pas MF, Baltz T, De Waal DT, Goddeeris BM, Claassen E, Büscher P. How does Trypanosoma equiperdum fit into the Trypanozoon group? A cluster analysis by RAPD and multiplex-endonuclease genotyping approach.. Parasitology 2003 May;126(Pt 5):425-31.
    doi: 10.1017/S0031182003002968pubmed: 12793646google scholar: lookup
  40. Claes F, Büscher P, Touratier L, Goddeeris BM. Trypanosoma equiperdum: master of disguise or historical mistake?. Trends Parasitol 2005 Jul;21(7):316-21.
    doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2005.05.010pubmed: 15923142google scholar: lookup
  41. Cuypers B, Van den Broeck F, Van Reet N, Meehan CJ, Cauchard J, Wilkes JM, Claes F, Goddeeris B, Birhanu H, Dujardin JC, Laukens K, Büscher P, Deborggraeve S. Genome-Wide SNP Analysis Reveals Distinct Origins of Trypanosoma evansi and Trypanosoma equiperdum.. Genome Biol Evol 2017 Aug 1;9(8):1990-1997.
    doi: 10.1093/gbe/evx102pmc: PMC5566637pubmed: 28541535google scholar: lookup
  42. Borst P, Fase-Fowler F, Gibson WC. Kinetoplast DNA of Trypanosoma evansi.. Mol Biochem Parasitol 1987 Feb;23(1):31-8.
    doi: 10.1016/0166-6851(87)90184-8pubmed: 3033499google scholar: lookup
  43. Pinchbeck GL, Morrison LJ, Tait A, Langford J, Meehan L, Jallow S, Jallow J, Jallow A, Christley RM. Trypanosomosis in The Gambia: prevalence in working horses and donkeys detected by whole genome amplification and PCR, and evidence for interactions between trypanosome species.. BMC Vet Res 2008 Feb 20;4:7.
    doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-4-7pmc: PMC2263031pubmed: 18289378google scholar: lookup
  44. Faye D, Pereira de Almeida PJ, Goossens B, Osaer S, Ndao M, Berkvens D, Speybroeck N, Nieberding F, Geerts S. Prevalence and incidence of trypanosomosis in horses and donkeys in the Gambia.. Vet Parasitol 2001 Nov 5;101(2):101-14.
    doi: 10.1016/S0304-4017(01)00503-9pubmed: 11587839google scholar: lookup
  45. Rodrigues CM, Batista JS, Lima JM, Freitas FJ, Barros IO, Garcia HA, Rodrigues AC, Camargo EP, Teixeira MM. Field and experimental symptomless infections support wandering donkeys as healthy carriers of Trypanosoma vivax in the Brazilian Semiarid, a region of outbreaks of high mortality in cattle and sheep.. Parasit Vectors 2015 Oct 28;8:564.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-015-1169-7pmc: PMC4625931pubmed: 26510460google scholar: lookup
  46. Brun R, Hecker H, Lun ZR. Trypanosoma evansi and T. equiperdum: distribution, biology, treatment and phylogenetic relationship (a review).. Vet Parasitol 1998 Oct;79(2):95-107.
    doi: 10.1016/S0304-4017(98)00146-0pubmed: 9806490google scholar: lookup
  47. Poursines Y, Pigoury L, Borde R, Bernard M. Trypanosomose expérimentale du cheval à Trypanosoma evansi (Souche Syrienne). 1. Etude clinique.. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 1943;36:235–244.
  48. Hébert L, Guitton E, Madeline A, Géraud T, Carnicer D, Lakhdar L, Pitel PH, Coste M, Laloy E, Giraudet A, Zientara S, Büscher P, Laugier C, Hans A, Petry S, Cauchard J. Validation of a new experimental model for assessing drug efficacy against infection with Trypanosoma equiperdum in horses.. Vet Parasitol 2018 Nov 15;263:27-33.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2018.10.005pubmed: 30389021google scholar: lookup
  49. Hagos A, Abebe G, Büscher P, Goddeeris BM, Claes F. Serological and parasitological survey of dourine in the Arsi-Bale highlands of Ethiopia.. Trop Anim Health Prod 2010 Apr;42(4):769-76.
    doi: 10.1007/s11250-009-9485-6pubmed: 19924557google scholar: lookup
  50. Pascucci S, Bettini P, Prati A, Vecchi G, Carboni A. Isolation of a trypanosome from a mare with dourine.. Atti Soc Ital Sci Vet 1977;31:793–794.
  51. Desquesnes M, McLaughlin G, Zoungrana A, Dávila AM. Detection and identification of Trypanosoma of African livestock through a single PCR based on internal transcribed spacer 1 of rDNA.. Int J Parasitol 2001 May 1;31(5-6):610-4.
    doi: 10.1016/S0020-7519(01)00161-8pubmed: 11334950google scholar: lookup
  52. Geysen D, Delespaux V, Geerts S. PCR-RFLP using Ssu-rDNA amplification as an easy method for species-specific diagnosis of Trypanosoma species in cattle.. Vet Parasitol 2003 Jan 2;110(3-4):171-80.
    doi: 10.1016/S0304-4017(02)00313-8pubmed: 12482646google scholar: lookup
  53. Njiru ZK, Constantine CC, Guya S, Crowther J, Kiragu JM, Thompson RC, Dávila AM. The use of ITS1 rDNA PCR in detecting pathogenic African trypanosomes.. Parasitol Res 2005 Feb;95(3):186-92.
    doi: 10.1007/s00436-004-1267-5pubmed: 15619129google scholar: lookup
  54. Masiga DK, Smyth AJ, Hayes P, Bromidge TJ, Gibson WC. Sensitive detection of trypanosomes in tsetse flies by DNA amplification.. Int J Parasitol 1992 Nov;22(7):909-18.
    doi: 10.1016/0020-7519(92)90047-Opubmed: 1459784google scholar: lookup
  55. Njiru ZK, Constantine CC, Masiga DK, Reid SA, Thompson RC, Gibson WC. Characterization of Trypanosoma evansi type B.. Infect Genet Evol 2006 Jul;6(4):292-300.
    doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2005.08.002pubmed: 16157514google scholar: lookup
  56. Birhanu H, Gebrehiwot T, Goddeeris BM, Büscher P, Van Reet N. New Trypanosoma evansi Type B Isolates from Ethiopian Dromedary Camels.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016 Apr;10(4):e0004556.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004556pmc: PMC4818106pubmed: 27035661google scholar: lookup
  57. Claes F, Radwanska M, Urakawa T, Majiwa PA, Goddeeris B, Büscher P. Variable Surface Glycoprotein RoTat 1.2 PCR as a specific diagnostic tool for the detection of Trypanosoma evansi infections.. Kinetoplastid Biol Dis 2004 Sep 17;3(1):3.
    doi: 10.1186/1475-9292-3-3pmc: PMC521498pubmed: 15377385google scholar: lookup
  58. Konnai S, Mekata H, Mingala CN, Abes NS, Gutierrez CA, Herrera JR, Dargantes AP, Witola WH, Cruz LC, Inoue N, Onuma M, Ohashi K. Development and application of a quantitative real-time PCR for the diagnosis of Surra in water buffaloes.. Infect Genet Evol 2009 Jul;9(4):449-52.
    doi: 10.1016/j.meegid.2009.01.006pubmed: 19460309google scholar: lookup
  59. Ngaira JM, Olembo NK, Njagi EN, Ngeranwa JJ. The detection of non-RoTat 1.2 Trypanosoma evansi.. Exp Parasitol 2005 May;110(1):30-8.
    doi: 10.1016/j.exppara.2005.01.001pubmed: 15804376google scholar: lookup
  60. Kamidi CM, Saarman NP, Dion K, Mireji PO, Ouma C, Murilla G, Aksoy S, Schnaufer A, Caccone A. Multiple evolutionary origins of Trypanosoma evansi in Kenya.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017 Sep;11(9):e0005895.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005895pmc: PMC5605091pubmed: 28880965google scholar: lookup
  61. . Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals. Chapter 2.5.3. Dourine.. OIE 2013.
  62. . Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals. Chapter 2.1.17. Trypanosoma evansi infection (surra).. OIE 2012.
  63. . Manual of diagnostic tests and vaccines for terrestrial animals. Chapter 2.4.18. Trypanosomosis (including tsetse -transmitted, but excluding surra and dourine).. OIE 2018.
  64. Verloo D, Magnus E, Büscher P. General expression of RoTat 1.2 variable antigen type in Trypanosoma evansi isolates from different origin.. Vet Parasitol 2001 Jun 12;97(3):183-9.
    doi: 10.1016/S0304-4017(01)00412-5pubmed: 11390070google scholar: lookup
  65. Van Vlaenderen G. In search of cattle trypanosomiasis in Suriname.. .
  66. Claes F, Ilgekbayeva GD, Verloo D, Saidouldin TS, Geerts S, Buscher P, Goddeeris BM. Comparison of serological tests for equine trypanosomosis in naturally infected horses from Kazakhstan.. Vet Parasitol 2005 Aug 10;131(3-4):221-5.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2005.05.001pubmed: 15951112google scholar: lookup
  67. Cauchard J, Soldan A, Madeline A, Johnson P, Büscher P, Petry S. Inter-laboratory ring trials to evaluate serological methods for dourine diagnosis.. Vet Parasitol 2014 Sep 15;205(1-2):70-6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.06.025pubmed: 25015543google scholar: lookup
  68. Bassarak B, Moser I, Menge C. In vitro production of Trypanosoma equiperdum antigen and its evaluation for use in serodiagnosis of dourine.. Vet Parasitol 2016 Jun 15;223:133-40.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.04.032pubmed: 27198790google scholar: lookup
  69. Perrone TM, Gonzatti MI, Villamizar G, Escalante A, Aso PM. Molecular profiles of Venezuelan isolates of Trypanosoma sp. by random amplified polymorphic DNA method.. Vet Parasitol 2009 May 12;161(3-4):194-200.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2009.01.034pubmed: 19286320google scholar: lookup
  70. Zablotskij VT, Georgiu C, de Waal T, Clausen PH, Claes F, Touratier L. The current challenges of dourine: difficulties in differentiating Trypanosoma equiperdum within the subgenus Trypanozoon.. Rev Sci Tech 2003 Dec;22(3):1087-96.
    doi: 10.20506/rst.22.3.1460pubmed: 15005565google scholar: lookup
  71. . OIE Non Tsetse Transmitted Animal Trypanosomoses Network.. OIE 2017.
  72. Luciani M, Di Febo T, Orsini M, Krasteva I, Cattaneo A, Podaliri Vulpiani M, Di Pancrazio C, Bachi A, Tittarelli M. Trypanosoma equiperdum Low Molecular Weight Proteins As Candidates for Specific Serological Diagnosis of Dourine.. Front Vet Sci 2018;5:40.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00040pmc: PMC5844913pubmed: 29556505google scholar: lookup
  73. Scacchia M, Cammà C, Di Francesco G, Di Provvido A, Giunta R, Luciani M, Marino AM, Pascucci I, Caporale V. A clinical case of dourine in an outbreak in Italy.. Vet Ital 2011 Oct-Dec;47(4):473-5, 469-72.
    pubmed: 22194229
  74. Boulangé A, Pillay D, Chevtzoff C, Biteau N, Comé de Graça V, Rempeters L, Theodoridis D, Baltz T. Development of a rapid antibody test for point-of-care diagnosis of animal African trypanosomosis.. Vet Parasitol 2017 Jan 15;233:32-38.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.11.017pubmed: 28043385google scholar: lookup
  75. Eyssen LE, Vather P, Jackson L, Ximba P, Biteau N, Baltz T, Boulangé A, Büscher P, Coetzer THT. Recombinant and native TviCATL from Trypanosoma vivax: Enzymatic characterisation and evaluation as a diagnostic target for animal African trypanosomosis.. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2018 Jul;223:50-54.
    doi: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2018.07.001pubmed: 29990512google scholar: lookup
  76. Dessalegn M. Study of the invariant surface glycoprotein ISG65 in the Trypanozoon subgenus.. .
  77. Tran T, Claes F, Dujardin JC, Buscher P. The invariant surface glycoprotein ISG75 gene family consists of two main groups in the Trypanozoon subgenus.. Parasitology 2006 Nov;133(Pt 5):613-21.
    doi: 10.1017/S0031182006000953pubmed: 16948872google scholar: lookup
  78. Tran T, Büscher P, Vandenbussche G, Wyns L, Messens J, De Greve H. Heterologous expression, purification and characterisation of the extracellular domain of trypanosome invariant surface glycoprotein ISG75.. J Biotechnol 2008 Jun 30;135(3):247-54.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2008.04.012pubmed: 18538880google scholar: lookup
  79. Tran T, Claes F, Verloo D, De Greve H, Büscher P. Towards a new reference test for surra in camels.. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2009 Jul;16(7):999-1002.
    doi: 10.1128/CVI.00096-09pmc: PMC2708406pubmed: 19403780google scholar: lookup
  80. Rogé S, Van Reet N, Odiwuor S, Tran T, Schildermans K, Vandamme S, Vandenberghe I, Vervecken W, Gillingwater K, Claes F, Devreese B, Guisez Y, Büscher P. Recombinant expression of trypanosome surface glycoproteins in Pichia pastoris for the diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection.. Vet Parasitol 2013 Nov 8;197(3-4):571-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.05.009pubmed: 23747105google scholar: lookup
  81. Rogé S. Development of new serodiagnostic tests for African trypanosomiasis due to Trypanosoma evansi and Trypanosoma brucei gambiense.. .
  82. Thuy NT, Goto Y, Lun ZR, Kawazu S, Inoue N. Tandem repeat protein as potential diagnostic antigen for Trypanosoma evansi infection.. Parasitol Res 2012 Feb;110(2):733-9.
    doi: 10.1007/s00436-011-2632-9pubmed: 21927872google scholar: lookup
  83. Nguyen TT, Zhou M, Ruttayaporn N, Nguyen QD, Nguyen VK, Goto Y, Suzuki Y, Kawazu S, Inoue N. Diagnostic value of the recombinant tandem repeat antigen TeGM6-4r for surra in water buffaloes.. Vet Parasitol 2014 Mar 17;201(1-2):18-23.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.01.009pubmed: 24524896google scholar: lookup
  84. Nguyen TT, Motsiri MS, Taioe MO, Mtshali MS, Goto Y, Kawazu S, Thekisoe OM, Inoue N. Application of crude and recombinant ELISAs and immunochromatographic test for serodiagnosis of animal trypanosomosis in the Umkhanyakude district of KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa.. J Vet Med Sci 2015 Feb;77(2):217-20.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.14-0330pmc: PMC4363025pubmed: 25342634google scholar: lookup
  85. Davaasuren B, Amgalanbaatar T, Musinguzi SP, Suganuma K, Otgonsuren D, Mossaad E, Narantsatsral S, Battur B, Battsetseg B, Xuan X, Inoue N. The evaluation of GM6-based ELISA and ICT as diagnostic methods on a Mongolian farm with an outbreak of non-tsetse transmitted horse trypanosomosis.. Vet Parasitol 2017 Sep 15;244:123-128.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.07.036pubmed: 28917303google scholar: lookup
  86. Mendoza E, Bubis J, Pérez-Rojas Y, Montilla AJ, Spencer LM, Bustamante F, Martínez JC. High immunological response against a Trypanosoma equiperdum protein that exhibits homology with the regulatory subunits of mammalian cAMP-dependent protein kinases.. J Immunoassay Immunochem 2018;39(4):451-469.
    doi: 10.1080/15321819.2018.1506930pubmed: 30084721google scholar: lookup
  87. Lejon V, Claes F, Verloo D, Maina M, Urakawa T, Majiwa PA, Büscher P. Recombinant RoTat 1.2 variable surface glycoprotein as antigen for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in dromedary camels.. Int J Parasitol 2005 Apr 1;35(4):455-60.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2004.12.015pubmed: 15777921google scholar: lookup
  88. Rogé S, Baelmans R, Claes F, Lejon V, Guisez Y, Jacquet D, Büscher P. Development of a latex agglutination test with recombinant variant surface glycoprotein for serodiagnosis of surra.. Vet Parasitol 2014 Oct 15;205(3-4):460-5.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2014.08.026pubmed: 25224790google scholar: lookup
  89. Birhanu H, Rogé S, Simon T, Baelmans R, Gebrehiwot T, Goddeeris BM, Büscher P. Surra Sero K-SeT, a new immunochromatographic test for serodiagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection in domestic animals.. Vet Parasitol 2015 Jul 30;211(3-4):153-7.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.05.008pubmed: 26012857google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 32 times.
  1. Frisch V, Fuehrer HP, Cavalleri JV. Relevant Brachycera (Excluding Oestroidea) for Horses in Veterinary Medicine: A Systematic Review. Pathogens 2023 Apr 6;12(4).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens12040568pubmed: 37111454google scholar: lookup
  2. Ramos CJR, de Souza Franco C, da Luz SP, Marques J, de Souza KM, do Nascimento LFN, das Neves GB, Moreira RS, Miletti LC. First record of Trypanosoma evansi DNA in Dichelacera alcicornis and Dichelacera januarii (Diptera: Tabanidae) flies in South America. Parasit Vectors 2023 Jan 5;16(1):4.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-022-05562-7pubmed: 36604766google scholar: lookup
  3. Venturelli A, Tagliazucchi L, Lima C, Venuti F, Malpezzi G, Magoulas GE, Santarem N, Calogeropoulou T, Cordeiro-da-Silva A, Costi MP. Current Treatments to Control African Trypanosomiasis and One Health Perspective. Microorganisms 2022 Jun 27;10(7).
    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms10071298pubmed: 35889018google scholar: lookup
  4. Ungogo MA, Campagnaro GD, Alghamdi AH, Natto MJ, de Koning HP. Differences in Transporters Rather than Drug Targets Are the Principal Determinants of the Different Innate Sensitivities of Trypanosoma congolense and Trypanozoon Subgenus Trypanosomes to Diamidines and Melaminophenyl Arsenicals. Int J Mol Sci 2022 Mar 5;23(5).
    doi: 10.3390/ijms23052844pubmed: 35269985google scholar: lookup
  5. Desquesnes M, Gonzatti M, Sazmand A, Thévenon S, Bossard G, Boulangé A, Gimonneau G, Truc P, Herder S, Ravel S, Sereno D, Jamonneau V, Jittapalapong S, Jacquiet P, Solano P, Berthier D. A review on the diagnosis of animal trypanosomoses. Parasit Vectors 2022 Feb 19;15(1):64.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-022-05190-1pubmed: 35183235google scholar: lookup
  6. Verney M, Gautron M, Lemans C, Rincé A, Hans A, Hébert L. Development of a microsphere-based immunoassay for the serological diagnosis of equine trypanosomosis. Sci Rep 2022 Jan 25;12(1):1308.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-05356-ypubmed: 35079068google scholar: lookup
  7. Oldrieve G, Verney M, Jaron KS, Hébert L, Matthews KR. Monomorphic Trypanozoon: towards reconciling phylogeny and pathologies. Microb Genom 2021 Aug;7(8).
    doi: 10.1099/mgen.0.000632pubmed: 34397347google scholar: lookup
  8. Kasozi KI, Zirintunda G, Ssempijja F, Buyinza B, Alzahrani KJ, Matama K, Nakimbugwe HN, Alkazmi L, Onanyang D, Bogere P, Ochieng JJ, Islam S, Matovu W, Nalumenya DP, Batiha GE, Osuwat LO, Abdelhamid M, Shen T, Omadang L, Welburn SC. Epidemiology of Trypanosomiasis in Wildlife-Implications for Humans at the Wildlife Interface in Africa. Front Vet Sci 2021;8:621699.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.621699pubmed: 34222391google scholar: lookup
  9. Maran SR, Fleck K, Monteiro-Teles NM, Isebe T, Walrad P, Jeffers V, Cestari I, Vasconcelos EJR, Moretti N. Protein acetylation in the critical biological processes in protozoan parasites. Trends Parasitol 2021 Sep;37(9):815-830.
    doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2021.04.008pubmed: 33994102google scholar: lookup
  10. Vourchakbé J, Tiofack ZAA, Kante TS, Mpoame M, Simo G. Molecular identification of Trypanosoma brucei gambiense in naturally infected pigs, dogs and small ruminants confirms domestic animals as potential reservoirs for sleeping sickness in Chad. Parasite 2020;27:63.
    doi: 10.1051/parasite/2020061pubmed: 33206595google scholar: lookup
  11. Mohd Rajdi NZI, Mohamad MA, Tan LP, Choong SS, Reduan MFH, Hamdan RH, C W Zalati CWS. First case report on the occurrence of Trypanosoma evansi in a Siam B Mare in Kelantan, Malaysia. Vet Med Sci 2021 Mar;7(2):303-309.
    doi: 10.1002/vms3.379pubmed: 33161648google scholar: lookup
  12. Emeto UE, Okolo CC, Nweze NE. Occurrence of Trypanosoma spp. and piroplasm infections of horses at Obollo-Afor southeastern Nigeria and resistance profiles of trypanosomes to isometamidium and diminazene salts. Trop Anim Health Prod 2020 Nov;52(6):3745-3753.
    doi: 10.1007/s11250-020-02412-5pubmed: 33000374google scholar: lookup
  13. Di Febo T, Krasteva I, Bonfini B, Tittarelli M, Matteucci O, Orsini G, Rossi E, Podaliri Vulpiani M, Rodomonti D, Iannetti L, Luciani M. Humoral immune response and delayed-type hypersensitivity in rabbits infected with Trypanosoma equiperdum. Sci Rep 2020 Sep 10;10(1):14914.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-71992-xpubmed: 32913248google scholar: lookup
  14. Vourchakbé J, Tiofack AAZ, Mbida M, Simo G. Trypanosome infections in naturally infected horses and donkeys of three active sleeping sickness foci in the south of Chad. Parasit Vectors 2020 Jun 23;13(1):323.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-020-04192-1pubmed: 32576240google scholar: lookup
  15. Sereno D, Akhoundi M, Sayehmri K, Mirzaei A, Holzmuller P, Lejon V, Waleckx E. Noninvasive Biological Samples to Detect and Diagnose Infections due to Trypanosomatidae Parasites: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Int J Mol Sci 2020 Feb 29;21(5).
    doi: 10.3390/ijms21051684pubmed: 32121441google scholar: lookup
  16. Muhanguzi D, Wasswa AT, Abila PP, Mugenyi A, Kakuru M, Abizera H, Ainebyoona S, Kansiime M, Amanyire W, Nkamwesiga J, Kimuda PM, Rascón-García K, Matovu E. Restricted insecticide application: a last mile control option for elimination of acute sleeping sickness and progressive control of African animal trypanosomiasis in South-Eastern Uganda. BMC Vet Res 2026 Jan 5;22(1):68.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-025-05244-3pubmed: 41491522google scholar: lookup
  17. Gao W, Liu M, Nurdaly K, Caidan D, Sun Y, Duan J, Zhao J, Gong X, Zhou J, Zhang Y, Chen Q. Unveiling Equine Abortion Pathogens: A One Health Perspective on Prevalence and Resistance in Northwest China. Pathogens 2025 Dec 11;14(12).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens14121275pubmed: 41471229google scholar: lookup
  18. Muyobela J, Chilongo K, Mukumbwali M, Sihoka C, Paone M, Cecchi G. Developing a national atlas to support the progressive control of tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomosis in Zambia. Parasit Vectors 2025 Nov 10;18(1):452.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-025-07086-2pubmed: 41214726google scholar: lookup
  19. Rimayanti R, Khairullah AR, Mustofa I, Utomo B, Lestari TD, Utama S, Akintunde AO, Mulyati S, Hernawati T, Dawood AQ, Riady G, Khan IU, Rasad SD, Moses IB. Hidden menace: Understanding the devastating consequences of dourine disease in horses. Open Vet J 2025 Sep;15(9):3931-3942.
    doi: 10.5455/OVJ.2025.v15.i9.2pubmed: 41200335google scholar: lookup
  20. Sousa JA, Miranda LM, Coutinho DJB, Costa TF, Costa SP, Freitas ÚS, Costa FB, Machado RZ, Nogueira RMS, Costa APD. Trypanosoma evansi in Brazil: first evidence of infection in equines from Northeast region. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet 2025;34(2):e000125.
    doi: 10.1590/S1984-29612025032pubmed: 40561341google scholar: lookup
  21. Ebiloma GU, Balogun EO, Arai N, Otani M, Baldassarri C, Alhejely A, Cueto-Díaz E, De Koning HP, Dardonville C, Shiba T. Uncovering the Unusual Inhibition Mechanism of a Trypanosome Alternative Oxidase Inhibitor Displaying Broad-Spectrum Activity against African Animal Trypanosomes. J Med Chem 2025 Aug 28;68(16):17155-17174.
    doi: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5c00631pubmed: 40464345google scholar: lookup
  22. Orłowska B, Świsłocka-Cutter M, Filip-Hutsch K, Młocicki D, Olszewski A, Asman M, Anusz K, Werszko J. First detection and phylogenetic analysis of Trypanosoma species in European wolves and bears: discovery of novel haplotypes. Sci Rep 2025 Feb 4;15(1):4160.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-88397-3pubmed: 39905172google scholar: lookup
  23. Phetkarl T, Fungwithaya P, Lewchalermvong K, Sontigun N. Prevalence of gastrointestinal and blood parasites in horses of Nakhon Si Thammarat province, Thailand. Vet World 2024 Nov;17(11):2460-2468.
    doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2024.2460-2468pubmed: 39829659google scholar: lookup
  24. Ilbeigi K, Mabille D, Roy R, Bundschuh M, Van de Velde E, Hulpia F, Van Calenbergh S, Caljon G. 3'-deoxytubercidin: A potent therapeutic candidate for the treatment of Surra and Dourine. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2025 Apr;27:100580.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2025.100580pubmed: 39827514google scholar: lookup
  25. Oldrieve GR, Venter F, Cayla M, Verney M, Hébert L, Geerts M, Van Reet N, Matthews KR. Mechanisms of life cycle simplification in African trypanosomes. Nat Commun 2024 Dec 2;15(1):10485.
    doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-54555-wpubmed: 39622840google scholar: lookup
  26. Shoraba M, Shoulah SA, Arnaout F, Selim A. Equine Trypanosomiasis: Molecular Detection, Hematological, and Oxidative Stress Profiling. Vet Med Int 2024;2024:6550276.
    doi: 10.1155/2024/6550276pubmed: 39184948google scholar: lookup
  27. Pérez-Gordones MC, Ramírez-Iglesias JR, Benaim G, Mendoza M. Molecular, immunological, and physiological evidences of a sphingosine-activated plasma membrane Ca(2+)-channel in Trypanosoma equiperdum. Parasitol Res 2024 Mar 20;123(3):166.
    doi: 10.1007/s00436-024-08188-zpubmed: 38506929google scholar: lookup
  28. Hébert L, Froger D, Madeline A, Lecouturier F, Lemans C, Zientara S. European Inter-Laboratory Proficiency Test for Dourine Antibody Detection Using the Complement Fixation Test. Vet Sci 2023 Sep 26;10(10).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci10100592pubmed: 37888544google scholar: lookup
  29. Padilla-Mejia NE, Field MC. Evolutionary, structural and functional insights in nuclear organisation and nucleocytoplasmic transport in trypanosomes. FEBS Lett 2023 Oct;597(20):2501-2518.
    doi: 10.1002/1873-3468.14747pubmed: 37789516google scholar: lookup
  30. Liu R, Liu T, Dan T, Yang S, Li Y, Luo B, Zhuang Y, Fan X, Zhang X, Cai H, Teng Y. AIDMAN: An AI-based object detection system for malaria diagnosis from smartphone thin-blood-smear images. Patterns (N Y) 2023 Sep 8;4(9):100806.
    doi: 10.1016/j.patter.2023.100806pubmed: 37720337google scholar: lookup
  31. Subekti DT, Ekawasti F, Azmi Z, Yuniarto I, Fong S, Fahrimal Y. DOES TRYPANOSOMA EVANSI HAVE THE MAXICIRCLE GENE, OR CAN TRYPANOSOMA EQUIPERDUM BE ISOLATED FROM BOVINES?. J Parasitol 2023 Aug 1;109(4):436-444.
    doi: 10.1645/21-95pubmed: 37646443google scholar: lookup
  32. Kimenyi NN, Kimenyi KM, Amugune NO, Getahun MN. Genetic connectivity of trypanosomes between tsetse-infested and tsetse-free areas of Kenya. Parasitology 2022 Mar;149(3):285-297.
    doi: 10.1017/S0031182021001815pubmed: 35264263google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,928 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.