FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / J Vet Intern Med / European College of Equine Internal Medicine consensus state...
Journal of veterinary internal medicine2022; 36(6); 1858-1871; doi: 10.1111/jvim.16581

European College of Equine Internal Medicine consensus statement on equine flaviviridae infections in Europe.

Abstract: Horses and other equids can be infected with several viruses of the family Flaviviridae, belonging to the genus Flavivirus and Hepacivirus. This consensus statement focuses on viruses with known occurrence in Europe, with the objective to summarize the current literature and formulate clinically relevant evidence-based recommendations regarding clinical disease, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. The viruses circulating in Europe include West Nile virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, Usutu virus, Louping ill virus and the equine hepacivirus. West Nile virus and Usutu virus are mosquito-borne, while tick-borne encephalitis virus and Louping ill virus are tick-borne. The natural route of transmission for equine hepacivirus remains speculative. West Nile virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus can induce encephalitis in infected horses. In the British Isle, rare equine cases of encephalitis associated with Louping ill virus are reported. In contrast, equine hepacivirus infections are associated with mild acute hepatitis and possibly chronic hepatitis. Diagnosis of flavivirus infections is made primarily by serology, although cross-reactivity occurs. Virus neutralization testing is considered the gold standard to differentiate between flavivirus infections in horses. Hepacivirus infection is detected by serum or liver RT-PCR. No direct antiviral treatment against flavi- or hepacivirus infections in horses is currently available and thus, treatment is supportive. Three vaccines against West Nile virus are licensed in the European Union. Geographic expansion of flaviviruses pathogenic for equids should always be considered a realistic threat, and it would be beneficial if their detection was included in surveillance programs.
© 2022 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2022-11-11 PubMed ID: 36367340PubMed Central: PMC9708432DOI: 10.1111/jvim.16581Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The study is about the infections caused by the family Flaviviridae, more specifically the Flavivirus and Hepacivirus, in horses across Europe. The focus of the research is on the identifying, diagnosing, treating, and preventing such viral infections, with an exploration of West Nile virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, Usutu virus, Louping ill virus, and equine hepacivirus.

Viruses Focus of the Study

  • Various viruses in the Flaviviridae family, and more specifically, the Flavivirus and Hepacivirus genera, can infect equids, which include horses, donkeys, and zebras.
  • The study focuses on viral infections found in Europe – West Nile virus, tick-borne encephalitis virus, Usutu virus, Louping ill virus, and the equine hepacivirus.
  • Among these, West Nile virus and the Usutu virus are spread through mosquitoes, while tick-borne encephalitis virus and Louping ill virus are tick-borne. The transmission method for equine hepacivirus still remains unknown.

Flaviviridae Infections in Equids

  • West Nile virus and tick-borne encephalitis virus can cause encephalitis, an inflammation of the brain, in horses.
  • Rare equine cases of encephalitis associated with Louping ill virus are reported in the British Isle.
  • On the other hand, infections from the equine hepacivirus are associated with acute and possibly chronic hepatitis, an inflammation of the liver.

Diagnostic Tests for Flaviviridae Infections

  • Diagnosis of flavivirus infection in horses is primarily made through serology, a diagnostic test of fluids from the body. However, this has issues with cross-reactivity where a test designed to detect one antigen might detect another related antigen instead.
  • Virus neutralization testing, a method to measure the ability of a virus to grow in certain conditions, is considered the gold standard to differentiate between flavivirus infections in horses.
  • Hepacivirus infection is detected by serum or liver RT-PCR, a precise diagnostic testing method.

Treatment and Prevention of Flaviviridae Infections

  • There is currently no direct antiviral treatment for either flavi- or hepacivirus infections in horses, with treatment being limited to supportive measures.
  • However, three vaccines against West Nile virus have been approved in the European Union for prevention.

Future Considerations

  • The researchers advise that the geographic expansion of flaviviruses harmful to equids should be considered a valid threat.
  • They also state that it would be helpful to include the detection of these viruses in surveillance programs aimed at monitoring and controlling animal diseases.

Cite This Article

APA
Cavalleri JV, Korbacska-Kutasi O, Leblond A, Paillot R, Pusterla N, Steinmann E, Tomlinson J. (2022). European College of Equine Internal Medicine consensus statement on equine flaviviridae infections in Europe. J Vet Intern Med, 36(6), 1858-1871. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.16581

Publication

Journal of veterinary internal medicine
ISSN: 1939-1676
NlmUniqueID: 8708660
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 36
Issue: 6
Pages: 1858-1871

Researcher Affiliations

Cavalleri, Jessika-M V
  • Clinical Unit of Equine Internal Medicine, Department for Companion Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
Korbacska-Kutasi, Orsolya
  • Clinical Unit of Equine Internal Medicine, Department for Companion Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
  • Department for Animal Breeding, Nutrition and Laboratory Animal Science, University of Veterinary Medicine, Budapest, Hungary.
  • Hungarian Academy of Sciences-Szent Istvan University (MTA-SZIE) Large Animal Clinical Research Group, Üllő, Dóra major, Hungary.
Leblond, Agnès
  • EPIA, UMR 0346, Epidemiologie des maladies animales et zoonotiques, INRAE, VetAgro Sup, University of Lyon, Marcy l'Etoile, France.
Paillot, Romain
  • School of Equine and Veterinary Physiotherapy, Writtle University College, Chelmsford, UK.
Pusterla, Nicola
  • Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA.
Steinmann, Eike
  • Department of Molecular and Medical Virology, Faculty of Medicine, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
Tomlinson, Joy
  • Baker Institute for Animal Health, Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine, Ithaca, New York, USA.

MeSH Terms

  • Horse Diseases / diagnosis
  • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
  • Horse Diseases / prevention & control
  • Europe / epidemiology
  • Flavivirus
  • West Nile virus
  • Encephalitis / veterinary
  • Horses
  • Flavivirus Infections / diagnosis
  • Flavivirus Infections / epidemiology
  • Flavivirus Infections / prevention & control
  • Flavivirus Infections / veterinary
  • Animals
  • Flaviviridae Infections / veterinary
  • Encephalitis Viruses, Tick-Borne

Conflict of Interest Statement

Authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 174 references
  1. Lecollinet S, Pronost S, Coulpier M. Viral equine encephalitis, a growing threat to the horse population in Europe?. Viruses 2019;12(1):23.
    doi: 10.3390/v12010023pmc: PMC7019608pubmed: 31878129google scholar: lookup
  2. Gather T, Walter S, Pfaender S. Acute and chronic infections with nonprimate hepacivirus in young horses. Vet Res 2016;47:97.
    pmc: PMC5034468pubmed: 27659317
  3. Scheel TK, Kapoor A, Nishiuchi E. Characterization of nonprimate hepacivirus and construction of a functional molecular clone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015;112:2192‐2197.
    pmc: PMC4343093pubmed: 25646476
  4. Tegtmeyer B, Echelmeyer J, Pfankuche VM. Chronic equine hepacivirus infection in an adult gelding with severe hepatopathy. Vet Med Sci 2019;5:372‐378.
    pmc: PMC6682795pubmed: 31267690
  5. McDonald E, Mathis S, Martin SW, Staples JE, Fischer M, Lindsey NP. Surveillance for West Nile virus disease—United States, 2009‐2018. MMWR Surveill Summ 2021;70:1‐15.
    pmc: PMC7949089pubmed: 33661868
  6. Petru PC, Aysel FS, Maria RS. West Nile virus in Central Europe—Pandora's box is wide open!. Travel med infect dis 2020;37.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101864pubmed: 32861859google scholar: lookup
  7. Castillo‐Olivares J, Wood J. West Nile virus infection of horses. Vet Res 2004;35:467‐483.
    pubmed: 15236677
  8. Pacenti M, Sinigaglia A, Martello T. Clinical and virological findings in patients with Usutu virus infection, northern Italy, 2018. Euro Surveill 2019;24:1900180.
    pmc: PMC6885746pubmed: 31771697
  9. Camino E, Schmid S, Weber F. Detection of antibodies against tick‐borne encephalitis flaviviruses in breeding and sport horses from Spain. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2020;11:101487.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2020.101487pubmed: 32723662google scholar: lookup
  10. Stapleton JT, Foung S, Muerhoff AS, Bukh J, Simmonds P. The GB viruses: a review and proposed classification of GBV‐A, GBV‐C (HGV), and GBV‐D in genus Pegivirus within the family Flaviviridae. J Gen Virol 2011;92:233‐246.
    pmc: PMC3081076pubmed: 21084497
  11. Tomlinson JE, Wolfisberg R, Fahnøe U. Equine pegiviruses cause persistent infection of bone marrow and are not associated with hepatitis. PLoS Pathog 2020;16:e1008677.
    pmc: PMC7375656pubmed: 32649726
  12. Walter S, Rasche A, Moreira‐Soto A. Differential infection patterns and recent evolutionary origins of equine hepaciviruses in donkeys. J Virol 2017;91(1):e01711‐16.
    pmc: PMC5165184pubmed: 27795428
  13. Tomlinson JE, Wolfisberg R, Fahnoe U. Pathogenesis, MicroRNA‐122 gene‐regulation, and protective immune responses after acute equine hepacivirus infection. Hepatology 2021;74:1148‐1163.
    pmc: PMC8435542pubmed: 33713356
  14. Pfaender S, Walter S, Grabski E. Immune protection against reinfection with nonprimate hepacivirus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017;114:E2430‐E2439.
    pmc: PMC5373355pubmed: 28275093
  15. Long MT, Jeter W, Hernandez J. Diagnostic performance of the equine IgM capture ELISA for serodiagnosis of West Nile virus infection. J Vet Intern Med 2006;20:608‐613.
    pubmed: 16734097
  16. Angenvoort J, Brault AC, Bowen RA, Groschup MH. West Nile viral infection of equids. Vet Microbiol 2013;167:168‐180.
    pmc: PMC4581842pubmed: 24035480
  17. Snook CS, Hyman SS, Del Piero F. West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in eight horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2001;218:1576‐1579.
    pubmed: 11393367
  18. Cantile C, Di Guardo G, Eleni C. Clinical and neuropathological features of West Nile virus equine encephalomyelitis in Italy. Equine Vet J 2000;32:31‐35.
    pubmed: 10661382
  19. Murgue B, Murri S, Zientara S, Durand B, Durand JP, Zeller H. West Nile outbreak in horses in southern France, 2000: the return after 35 years. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:692‐696.
    pmc: PMC2631744pubmed: 11585534
  20. Ostlund EN, Crom RL, Pedersen DD, Johnson DJ, Williams WO, Schmitt BJ. Equine West Nile encephalitis, United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:665‐669.
    pmc: PMC2631754pubmed: 11589171
  21. Ward MP, Scheurmann JA, Highfield LD. Characteristics of an outbreak of West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in a previously uninfected population of horses. Vet Microbiol 2006;118:255‐259.
    pubmed: 16971067
  22. Kutasi O, Bakonyi T, Lecollinet S. Equine encephalomyelitis outbreak caused by a genetic lineage 2 West Nile virus in Hungary. J Vet Intern Med 2011;25:586‐591.
    pubmed: 21457323
  23. Porter MB, Long MT, Getman LM. West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in horses: 46 cases (2001). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003;222:1241‐1247.
    pubmed: 12725313
  24. Garcia‐Bocanegra I, Jaen‐Tellez JA, Napp S. West Nile fever outbreak in horses and humans, Spain, 2010. Emerg Infect Dis 2011;17:2397‐2399.
    pmc: PMC3311180pubmed: 22172565
  25. Venter M, Human S, Zaayman D. Lineage 2 west nile virus as cause of fatal neurologic disease in horses, South Africa. Emerg Infect Dis 2009;15:877‐884.
    pmc: PMC2727306pubmed: 19523285
  26. de Heus P, Kolodziejek J, Camp JV. Emergence of West Nile virus lineage 2 in Europe: Characteristics of the first seven cases of West Nile neuroinvasive disease in horses in Austria. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020;67:1189‐1197.
    pmc: PMC7317211pubmed: 31840920
  27. Bouzalas IG, Diakakis N, Chaintoutis SC. Emergence of equine West Nile encephalitis in Central Macedonia, Greece, 2010. Transbound Emerg Dis 2016;63:e219‐e227.
    pubmed: 25660661
  28. Schuler LA, Khaitsa ML, Dyer NW, Stoltenow CL. Evaluation of an outbreak of West Nile virus infection in horses: 569 cases (2002). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004;225:1084‐1089.
    pubmed: 15515988
  29. Ward MP, Levy M, Thacker HL. Investigation of an outbreak of encephalomyelitis caused by West Nile virus in 136 horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004;225:84‐89.
    pubmed: 15239478
  30. Bielefeldt‐Ohmann H, Bosco‐Lauth A, Hartwig AE. Characterization of non‐lethal West Nile virus (WNV) infection in horses: subclinical pathology and innate immune response. Microb Pathog 2017;103:71‐79.
    pubmed: 28012987
  31. Minke JM, Siger L, Cupillard L. Protection provided by a recombinant ALVAC([R])‐WNV vaccine expressing the prM/E genes of a lineage 1 strain of WNV against a virulent challenge with a lineage 2 strain. Vaccine 2011;29:4608‐4612.
    pubmed: 21549780
  32. Seino KK, Long MT, Gibbs EP. Comparative efficacies of three commercially available vaccines against West Nile virus (WNV) in a short‐duration challenge trial involving an equine WNV encephalitis model. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007;14:1465‐1471.
    pmc: PMC2168174pubmed: 17687109
  33. Weese JS, Baird JD, DeLay J. West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in horses in Ontario: 28 cases. Can Vet J 2003;44:469‐473.
    pmc: PMC340169pubmed: 12839240
  34. Bunning ML, Bowen RA, Cropp CB. Experimental infection of horses with West Nile virus. Emerg Infect Dis 2002;8:380‐386.
    pmc: PMC3393377pubmed: 11971771
  35. Salazar P, Traub‐Dargatz JL, Morley PS. Outcome of equids with clinical signs of West Nile virus infection and factors associated with death. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004;225:267‐274.
    pubmed: 15323385
  36. Autorino GL, Battisti A, Deubel V. West Nile virus epidemic in horses, Tuscany region, Italy. Emerg Infect Dis 2002;8:1372‐1378.
    pmc: PMC2738505pubmed: 12498650
  37. Durand B, Dauphin G, Zeller H. Serosurvey for West Nile virus in horses in southern France. Vet Rec 2005;157:711‐713.
    pubmed: 16311385
  38. Perez‐Ramirez E, Llorente F, del Amo J. Pathogenicity evaluation of twelve West Nile virus strains belonging to four lineages from five continents in a mouse model: discrimination between three pathogenicity categories. J Gen Virol 2017;98:662‐670.
    pubmed: 28475031
  39. Müller K. Untersuchung zum Vorkommen von Antikörpern gegen das “Tick Borne Encephalitis Virus” (TBEV) beim Pferd im Endemiegebiet Marburg‐Biedenkopf. Germany: Universitätsbibliothek Giessen; 2006.
  40. Luckschander N, Kolbl S, Enzesberger O. Tick borne encephalitis (TBE) in an Austrian horse population. Tierarztl Prax Ausg Grobtiere Nutztiere 1999;27:235‐238.
  41. Fouché N, Oesch S, Ziegler U, Gerber V. Clinical presentation and laboratory diagnostic work‐up of a horse with tick‐borne encephalitis in Switzerland. Viruses 2021;13:13.
    pmc: PMC8402657pubmed: 34452340
  42. Conze TM, Bago Z, Revilla‐Fernandez S. Tick‐borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) infection in two horses. Viruses 2021;13(9):1775.
    pmc: PMC8472121pubmed: 34578356
  43. Waldvogel A, Matile H, Wegmann C, Wyler R, Kunz C. Tick‐borne encephalitis in the horse. Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd 1981;123:227‐233.
    pubmed: 7256233
  44. Vilibic‐Cavlek T, Kaic B, Barbic L. First evidence of simultaneous occurrence of West Nile virus and Usutu virus neuroinvasive disease in humans in Croatia during the 2013 outbreak. Infection 2014;42:689‐695.
    pubmed: 24793998
  45. Zelena H, Kleinerova J, Sikutova S. First autochthonous West Nile lineage 2 and Usutu virus infections in humans, July to October 2018, Czech Republic. Pathogens 2021;2021:10.
    pmc: PMC8225171pubmed: 34073968
  46. Simonin Y, Sillam O, Carles MJ. Human Usutu virus infection with atypical neurologic presentation, Montpellier, France, 2016. Emerg Infect Dis 2018;24:875‐878.
    pmc: PMC5938765pubmed: 29664365
  47. Santini M, Vilibic‐Cavlek T, Barsic B. First cases of human Usutu virus neuroinvasive infection in Croatia, August‐September 2013: clinical and laboratory features. J Neurovirol 2015;21:92‐97.
    pubmed: 25361698
  48. Pecorari M, Longo G, Gennari W. First human case of Usutu virus neuroinvasive infection, Italy, August‐September 2009. Euro Surveill 2009;14:19446.
    pubmed: 20070936
  49. Nagy A, Mezei E, Nagy O. Extraordinary increase in West Nile virus cases and first confirmed human Usutu virus infection in Hungary, 2018. Euro Surveill 2019;24:1900038.
    doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2019.2824.2828.1900038pmc: PMC6636212pubmed: 31311619google scholar: lookup
  50. Domanović D, Gossner CM, Lieshout‐Krikke R. West Nile and Usutu virus infections and challenges to blood safety in the European Union. Emerg Infect Dis 2019;25:1057.
    doi: 10.3201/eid2506.181755pmc: PMC6537739pubmed: 31107223google scholar: lookup
  51. Vazquez A, Jimenez‐Clavero M, Franco L. Usutu virus: potential risk of human disease in Europe. Euro Surveill 2011;16:19935.
    pubmed: 21871214
  52. Barbic L, Vilibic‐Cavlek T, Listes E. 20. Demonstration of Usutu virus antibodies in horses, Croatia. Vector Borne Zoonot Dis 2013;13:772‐774.
    pubmed: 23808977
  53. Bazanow B, Jansen van Vuren P. Survey on West Nile and Usutu viruses in horses and birds in Poland. Viruses 2018;10:87.
    pmc: PMC5850394pubmed: 29462983
  54. Jeffries C, Mansfield K, Phipps L. Louping ill virus: an endemic tick‐borne disease of Great Britain. J Gen Virol 2014;95:1005‐1014.
    pmc: PMC4811648pubmed: 24552787
  55. Twomey DF, Cranwell MP, Reid HW, Tan JF. Louping ill on Dartmoor. Vet Rec 2001;149:687.
    pubmed: 11765333
  56. Timoney P, Donnelly W, Clements L. Encephalitis caused by louping ill virus in a group of horses in Ireland. Equine Vet J 1976;8:113‐117.
    pubmed: 182486
  57. Elia G, Lanave G, Lorusso E. Equine hepacivirus persistent infection in a horse with chronic wasting. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017;64:1354‐1358.
    pubmed: 28707785
  58. Pfaender S, Cavalleri JMV, Walter S. Clinical course of infection and viral tissue tropism of hepatitis C virus‐like nonprimate hepaciviruses in horses. Hepatology (Baltimore, Md) 2015;61:447‐459.
    pubmed: 25212983
  59. Ramsay JD, Evanoff R, Wilkinson TE Jr, Divers TJ, Knowles DP, Mealey RH. Experimental transmission of equine hepacivirus in horses as a model for hepatitis C virus. Hepatology 2015;61:1533‐1546.
    pubmed: 25580897
  60. Payne S. Family Flaviviridae. Viruses: VirusesAcademic Press 2017:129‐139.
  61. van der Meulen KM, Pensaert MB, Nauwynck HJ. West Nile virus in the vertebrate world. Arch Virol 2005;150:637‐657.
    pubmed: 15662484
  62. Mancini G, Montarsi F, Calzolari M. Mosquito species involved in the circulation of West Nile and Usutu viruses in Italy. Vet Ital 2017;53:97‐110.
    pubmed: 28675249
  63. Colpitts TM, Conway MJ, Montgomery RR, Fikrig E. West Nile virus: biology, transmission, and human infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 2012;25:635‐648.
    pmc: PMC3485754pubmed: 23034323
  64. Kilpatrick AM, Kramer LD, Jones MJ, Marra PP, Daszak P. West Nile virus epidemics in North America are driven by shifts in mosquito feeding behavior. PLoS Biol 2006;4:e82.
    pmc: PMC1382011pubmed: 16494532
  65. Taieb L, Ludwig A, Ogden NH. Bird species involved in West Nile virus epidemiological cycle in southern Q. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020;17:4517.
    pmc: PMC7344584pubmed: 32585999
  66. Prow NA. The changing epidemiology of Kunjin virus in Australia. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013;10:6255‐6272.
    pmc: PMC3881112pubmed: 24287851
  67. Vasic A, Oslobanu LE, Marinov M. Evidence of West Nile virus (WNV) circulation in wild birds and WNV RNA negativity in mosquitoes of the Danube Delta Biosphere Reserve, Romania, 2016. Trop Med Infect Dis 2019;4:116.
    pmc: PMC6789615pubmed: 31438608
  68. Napp S, Petric D, Busquets N. West Nile virus and other mosquito‐borne viruses present in Eastern Europe. Pathog Glob Health 2018;112:233‐248.
    pmc: PMC6225508pubmed: 29979950
  69. Rudolf I, Betasova L, Blazejova H. West Nile virus in overwintering mosquitoes, Central Europe. Parasit Vectors 2017;10:452.
    pmc: PMC5625652pubmed: 28969685
  70. Farajollahi A, Crans WJ, Bryant P. Detection of West Nile viral RNA from an overwintering pool of Culex pipens pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae) in New Jersey, 2003. J Med Entomol 2005;42:490‐494.
    pubmed: 15962803
  71. Roesch F, Fajardo A, Moratorio G, Vignuzzi M. Usutu virus: an arbovirus on the rise. Viruses 2019;11:640.
    pmc: PMC6669749pubmed: 31336826
  72. Suss J. Epidemiology and ecology of TBE relevant to the production of effective vaccines. Vaccine 2003;21(Suppl 1):S19‐S35.
    pubmed: 12628811
  73. Macleod J, Gordon WS. Studies in louping‐ill (an encephalomyelitis of sheep). II. Transmission by the sheep tick, Ixodes ricinus L. J Comp Pathol 1932;45:240‐256.
  74. Reid HW, Buxton D, Pow I, Finlayson J. Transmission of louping‐ill virus in goat milk. Vet Rec 1984;114:163‐165.
    pubmed: 6328733
  75. Reid HW, Pow I. Excretion of louping‐ill virus in ewes' milk. Vet Rec 1985;117:470.
    pubmed: 3000059
  76. Scheel TKH, Kapoor A, Nishiuchi E. Characterization of nonprimate hepacivirus and construction of a functional molecular clone. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015;112:2192‐2197.
    pmc: PMC4343093pubmed: 25646476
  77. Pronost S, Fortier C, Marcillaud‐Pitel C. Further evidence for in utero transmission of equine hepacivirus to foals. Viruses 2019;11:11.
    pmc: PMC6950541pubmed: 31817371
  78. Gather T, Walter S, Todt D. Vertical transmission of hepatitis C virus‐like non‐primate hepacivirus in horses. J Gen Virol 2016;97:2540‐2551.
    pubmed: 27461949
  79. Badenhorst M, de Heus P, Auer A. No evidence of mosquito involvement in the transmission of equine hepacivirus (Flaviviridae) in an epidemiological survey of Austrian horses. Viruses 2019;11:1014.
    pmc: PMC6893842pubmed: 31683893
  80. Im JH, Baek JH, Durey A, Kwon HY, Chung MH, Lee JS. Geographic distribution of tick‐borne encephalitis virus complex. J Vector Borne Dis 2020;57:14‐22.
    pubmed: 33818450
  81. Smithburn E, Hughes T, Burke A. A neurotropic virus isolated from the blood of a native of Uganda. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1940;20:471‐492.
  82. Chancey C, Grinev A, Volkova E. The global ecology and epidemiology of West Nile virus. Biomed Res Int 2015;2015:376230.
    pmc: PMC4383390pubmed: 25866777
  83. Hannoun C, Panthier R, Mouchet J. Isolement en France du virus West‐Nile à partir de malades et du vecteur Culex modestus Ficalbi. Comptes Rendus Hebd Seances Acad Sci 1964;259:4170.
    pubmed: 14260659
  84. Zeller HG, Schuffenecker I. West Nile virus: an overview of its spread in Europe and the Mediterranean basin in contrast to its spread in the Americas. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004;23:147‐156.
    pubmed: 14986160
  85. Bakonyi T, Ivanics É, Erdélyi K. Lineage 1 and 2 strains of encephalitic West Nile virus, Central Europe. Emerg Infect Dis 2006;12:618‐623.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1204.051379pmc: PMC3294705pubmed: 16704810google scholar: lookup
  86. Papa A, Danis K, Baka A. Ongoing outbreak of West Nile virus infections in humans in Greece, July–August 2010. Euro Surveill 2010;15:19644.
    pubmed: 20807489
  87. Aguilera‐Sepulveda P, Napp S, Llorente F. West Nile virus lineage 2 spreads westwards in Europe and overwinters in north‐eastern Spain (2017‐2020). Viruses 2022;14:569.
    pmc: PMC8951896pubmed: 35336976
  88. Hernandez‐Triana LM, Jeries CL, Mansfield KL. Emergence of West Nile virus lineage 2 in Europe: a review on the introduction and spread of a mosquito‐borne disease. Front Public Health 2014;2:271.
    pmc: PMC4258884pubmed: 25538937
  89. Bakonyi T, Haussig JM. West Nile virus keeps on moving up in Europe. Euro Surveill 2020;25:2001938.
    doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.2825.2846.2001938pmc: PMC7678036pubmed: 33213684google scholar: lookup
  90. Bakonyi T, Ferenczi E, Erdelyi K. Explosive spread of a neuroinvasive lineage 2 West Nile virus in Central Europe, 2008/2009. Vet Microbiol 2013;165:61‐70.
    pubmed: 23570864
  91. Zehender G, Veo C, Ebranati E. Reconstructing the recent West Nile virus lineage 2 epidemic in Europe and Italy using discrete and continuous phylogeography. PLoS One 2017;12:e0179679.
    pmc: PMC5497961pubmed: 28678837
  92. Sirbu A, Ceianu CS, Panculescu‐Gatej RI. Outbreak of West Nile virus infection in humans, Romania, July to October 2010. Eurosurveillance 2011;16:19762.
    pubmed: 21251489
  93. Merdic E, Peric L, Pandak N. West Nile virus outbreak in humans in Croatia, 2012. Coll Antropol 2012;37:943‐947.
    pubmed: 24308241
  94. Beck C, Leparc Goffart I, Franke F. Contrasted epidemiological patterns of West Nile virus lineages 1 and 2 infections in France from 2015 to 2019. Pathogens 2020;9(11):908.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens9110908pmc: PMC7692118pubmed: 33143300google scholar: lookup
  95. Bergmann F, Trachsel DS, Stoeckle SD. Seroepidemiological survey of West Nile virus infections in horses from Berlin/Brandenburg and North Rhine‐Westphalia, Germany. Viruses Basel 2022;14:14.
    pmc: PMC8877243pubmed: 35215837
  96. Vlaskamp D, Thijsen S, Reimerink J. First autochthonous West Nile virus infections in The Netherlands; from one to six cases, July to August 2020. Euro Surveill 2020;25:2001904.
    doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.46.2001904pmc: PMC7678035pubmed: 33213687google scholar: lookup
  97. Sikkema RS, Schrama M, Tvd B. Detection of West Nile virus in a common whitethroat (Curruca communis) and Culex mosquitoes in The Netherlands, 2020. Euro Surveill 2020;25:2001704.
    doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.2825.2840.2001704pmc: PMC7545818pubmed: 33034280google scholar: lookup
  98. Platonov AE, Karan LS, Shopenskaia TA. Genotyping of West Nile fever virus strains circulating in southern Russia as an epidemiological investigation method: principles and results. Zhurnal Mikrobiol Epidemiol Immunobiol 2011;2:29‐37.
    pubmed: 21598612
  99. ECDC. Epidemiological Update: West Nile Virus Transmission Season in Europe. 2018.
  100. ECDC. The European Union one health 2018 Zoonoses report. EFSA J 2019:17.
    pmc: PMC7055727pubmed: 32626211
  101. ECDC. Communicable Disease Threats Report Week 23, May 31‐June 6, 2020. 2020.
  102. MoH S, CdCdAyE S. Evaluación rápida de riesgo: Meningoencefalitis por el virus del Nilo occidental en España (1ª actualización) [Rapid risk assessment: Meningoencephalitis caused by West Nile virus in Spain (1st update)]. Madrid: Ministry of Health; In Spanish.
  103. Engel D, Jost H, Wink M. Reconstruction of the evolutionary history and dispersal of Usutu virus, a neglected emerging arbovirus in Europe and Africa. MBio 2016;7:e01938‐01915.
    pmc: PMC4742707pubmed: 26838717
  104. Folly AJ, Lawson B, Lean FZ. Detection of Usutu virus infection in wild birds in the United Kingdom, 2020. Euro Surveill 2020;25:2001732.
    doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.2825.2841.2001732pmc: PMC7565854pubmed: 33063656google scholar: lookup
  105. Ziegler U, Fast C, Eiden M. Evidence for an independent third Usutu virus introduction into Germany. BMC Vet Res 2016;192:60‐66.
    pubmed: 27527765
  106. Eiden M, Gil M, Ziegler U. Emergence of two Usutu virus lineages in Culex pipiens mosquitoes in the Camargue, France, 2015. Infect Genet Evol 2018;61:151‐154.
    pubmed: 29592838
  107. Csank T, Drzewniokova P, Korytar L. A serosurvey of flavivirus infection in horses and birds in Slovakia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2018;18:206‐213.
    pubmed: 29437548
  108. Pautienius A, Armonaite A, Simkute E. Cross‐sectional study on the prevalence and factors influencing occurrence of tick‐borne encephalitis in horses in Lithuania. Pathogens 2021;10:2001732.
    pmc: PMC7911650pubmed: 33572628
  109. Rushton JO, Lecollinet S, Hubalek Z. Tick‐borne encephalitis virus in horses, Austria, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis 2013;19:635‐637.
    pmc: PMC3647421pubmed: 23631894
  110. de Heus P, Kolodziejek J, Hubálek Z. West Nile virus and tick‐borne encephalitis virus are endemic in equids in eastern Austria. Viruses 2021;13:1873.
    pmc: PMC8473302pubmed: 34578454
  111. Klaus C, Hörügel U, Hoffmann B, Beer M. Tick‐borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) infection in horses: clinical and laboratory findings and epidemiological investigations. Vet Microbiol 2013;163:368‐372.
    pubmed: 23395291
  112. Balseiro A, Royo L, Martinez C. Louping ill in goats, Spain, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis 2012;18:976‐978.
    pmc: PMC3358175pubmed: 22607689
  113. Hyde J, Nettleton P, Marriott L. Louping ill in horses. Vet Rec 2007;160:532.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.1160.1115.1532pubmed: 17435106google scholar: lookup
  114. Gemaque BS, de Souza AJS, Soares MCP. Hepacivirus infection in domestic horses, Brazil, 2011‐2013. Emerg Infect Dis 2014;20:2180.
    pmc: PMC4257787pubmed: 25420101
  115. Lyons S, Kapoor A, Schneider BS. Viraemic frequencies and seroprevalence of non‐primate hepacivirus and equine pegiviruses in horses and other mammalian species. J Gen Virol 2014;95:1701‐1711.
    pubmed: 24814924
  116. Tanaka T, Kasai H, Yamashita A. Hallmarks of hepatitis C virus in equine hepacivirus. J Virol 2014;88:13352‐13366.
    pmc: PMC4249100pubmed: 25210167
  117. Reuter G, Maza N, Pankovics P, Boros Á. Non‐primate hepacivirus infection with apparent hepatitis in a horse—short communication. Acta Vet Hung 2014;62:422‐427.
    pubmed: 25038950
  118. Lu G, Sun L, Xu T. First description of hepacivirus and pegivirus infection in domestic horses in China: a study in Guangdong Province, Heilongjiang Province and Hong Kong District. PLoS One 2016;11:e0155662.
    pmc: PMC4868292pubmed: 27182887
  119. Reichert C, Campe A, Walter S. Frequent occurrence of nonprimate hepacivirus infections in thoroughbred breeding horses—a cross‐sectional study for the occurrence of infections and potential risk factors. Vet Microbiol 2017;203:315‐322.
    pubmed: 28619163
  120. Date T, Sugiyama M, Lkhagvasuren D, Wakita T, Oyunsuren T, Mizokami M. Prevalence of equine hepacivirus infection in Mongolia. Virus Res 2020;282:197940.
    pubmed: 32259615
  121. Bartenschlager R, Lohmann V. Replication of hepatitis C virus. J Gen Virol 2000;81:1631‐1648.
    pubmed: 10859368
  122. Trock SC, Meade BJ, Glaser AL. West Nile virus outbreak among horses in New York state, 1999 and 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:745‐747.
    pmc: PMC2631776pubmed: 11585543
  123. Wamsley HL, Alleman AR, Porter MB, Long MT. Findings in cerebrospinal fluids of horses infected with West Nile virus: 30 cases (2001). J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002;221:1303‐1305.
    pubmed: 12418697
  124. Kutasi O, Feher O, Sardi S. Characterisation of the cerebrospinal fluid of horses with West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease. Acta Vet Hung 2020;68:177‐185.
    pubmed: 32894729
  125. Ozkul A, Ergunay K, Koysuren A. Concurrent occurrence of human and equine West Nile virus infections in Central Anatolia, Turkey: the first evidence for circulation of lineage 1 viruses. Int J Infect Dis 2013;17:e546‐e551.
    pubmed: 23517780
  126. Hirota J, Shimizu S, Shibahara T. Application of West Nile virus diagnostic techniques. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2013;11:793‐803.
    pubmed: 23977935
  127. Kaaijk P, Luytjes W. Are we prepared for emerging flaviviruses in Europe? Challenges for vaccination. Hum Vaccin Immunother 2018;14:337‐344.
    pmc: PMC5806644pubmed: 29053401
  128. Monaco F, Purpari G, Di Gennaro A. Immunological response in horses following West Nile virus vaccination with inactivated or recombinant vaccine. Vet Ital 2019;55:73‐79.
    pubmed: 30951184
  129. Joo K, Bakonyi T, Szenci O. Comparison of assays for the detection of West Nile virus antibodies in equine serum after natural infection or vaccination. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2017;183:1‐6.
    pubmed: 28063471
  130. Porter MB, Long M, Gosche DG. Immunoglobulin M‐capture enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay testing of cerebrospinal fluid and serum from horses exposed to west nile virus by vaccination or natural infection. J Vet Intern Med 2004;18:866‐870.
    pubmed: 15638271
  131. Martin DA, Biggerstaff BJ, Allen B, Johnson AJ, Lanciotti RS, Roehrig JT. Use of immunoglobulin m cross‐reactions in differential diagnosis of human flaviviral encephalitis infections in the United States. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2002;9:544‐549.
    pmc: PMC120001pubmed: 11986257
  132. Klaus C, Ziegler U, Kalthoff D, Hoffmann B, Beer M. Tick‐borne encephalitis virus (TBEV)—findings on cross reactivity and longevity of TBEV antibodies in animal sera. BMC Vet Res 2014;10:78.
    pmc: PMC3978054pubmed: 24690234
  133. Endale A, Medhin G, Darfiro K, Kebede N, Legesse M. Magnitude of antibody cross‐reactivity in medically important mosquito‐borne flaviviruses: a systematic review. Infect Drug Resist 2021;14:4291‐4299.
    pmc: PMC8541746pubmed: 34703255
  134. Yeh JY, Lee JH, Park JY. A diagnostic algorithm to serologically differentiate West Nile virus from Japanese encephalitis virus infections and its validation in field surveillance of poultry and horses. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012;12:372‐379.
    pmc: PMC3353748pubmed: 22217162
  135. Beck C, Lowenski S, Durand B, Bahuon C, Zientara S, Lecollinet S. Improved reliability of serological tools for the diagnosis of West Nile fever in horses within Europe. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017;11:e0005936.
    pmc: PMC5617233pubmed: 28915240
  136. Balasuriya UB, Shi PY, Wong SJ. Detection of antibodies to West Nile virus in equine sera using microsphere immunoassay. J Vet Diagn Invest 2006;18:392‐395.
    pubmed: 16921881
  137. Vasil'ev AV, Shchelkanov M, Dzharkenov AF. West Nile virus infection of agricultural animals in the Astrakhan region, as evidenced by the 2001‐2004 serological surveys. Vopr Virusol 2005;50:36‐41.
    pubmed: 16408630
  138. Sutherland LJ, Cash AA, Huang YJ. Serologic evidence of arboviral infections among humans in Kenya. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2011;85:158‐161.
    pmc: PMC3122361pubmed: 21734142
  139. Toplu N, Oguzoglu TC, Ural K. West Nile virus infection in horses: detection by immunohistochemistry, in situ hybridization, and ELISA. Vet Pathol 2015;52:1073‐1076.
    pubmed: 25677341
  140. Kleiboeker SB, Loiacono CM, Rottinghaus A, Pue HL, Johnson GC. Diagnosis of West Nile virus infection in horses. J Vet Diagn Invest 2004;16:2‐10.
    pubmed: 14974840
  141. Pennick KE, McKnight CA, Patterson JS. Diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry for Eastern equine encephalitis virus and West Nile virus in formalin‐fixed, paraffin‐embedded brain tissue of horses. J Vet Diagn Invest 2012;24:333‐338.
    pubmed: 22379048
  142. Cantile C, Del Piero F, Di Guardo G. Pathologic and immunohistochemical findings in naturally occuring West Nile virus infection in horses. Vet Pathol 2001;38:414‐421.
    pubmed: 11467475
  143. Williams H, Thorburn H. Serum antibodies to louping‐ill virus. Scott Med J 1962;7:353‐355.
    pubmed: 14007162
  144. Laurenson MK, McKendrick IJ, Reid HW. Prevalence, spatial distribution and the effect of control measures on louping‐ill virus in the Forest of Bowland, Lancashire. Epidemiol Infect 2007;135:963‐973.
    pmc: PMC2870653pubmed: 17346361
  145. Mansfield KL, Horton DL, Johnson N. Flavivirus‐induced antibody cross‐reactivity. J Gen Virol 2011;92:2821‐2829.
    pmc: PMC3352572pubmed: 21900425
  146. Burbelo PD, Dubovi EJ, Simmonds P. Serology‐enabled discovery of genetically diverse hepaciviruses in a new host. J Virol 2012;86:6171‐6178.
    pmc: PMC3372197pubmed: 22491452
  147. Bowen RA, Rouge MM, Siger L. Pathogenesis of West Nile virus infection in dogs treated with glucocorticoids. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2006;74:670‐673.
    pubmed: 16607003
  148. Nath A, Tyler KL. Novel approaches and challenges to treatment of central nervous system viral infections. Ann Neurol 2013;74:412‐422.
    pmc: PMC4052367pubmed: 23913580
  149. de Albuquerque P, Santos LHS, Antunes D. Structural insights into NS5B protein of novel equine hepaciviruses and pegiviruses complexed with polymerase inhibitors. Virus Res 2020;278:197867.
    pubmed: 31972246
  150. EMA. CVMP Assessment Report for Equilis West Nile (EMEA/V/C/002241/0000). 2013.
  151. EMA. Equip WN Annex I Summary of Product Characteristics. 2013.
  152. Chaintoutis SC, Diakakis N, Papanastassopoulou M, Banos G, Dovas CI. Evaluation of cross‐protection of a lineage 1 West Nile virus inactivated vaccine against natural infections from a virulent lineage 2 strain in horses, under field conditions. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2015;22:1040‐1049.
    pmc: PMC4550672pubmed: 26178384
  153. EMA. Proteq West Nile (West Nile recombinant canarypox virus [vCP2017]). 2011.
  154. EMA. Proteq West Nile Annex I Summary of Product Characteristics. 2016.
  155. El Garch H, Minke JM, Rehder J. A West Nile virus (WNV) recombinant canarypox virus vaccine elicits WNV‐specific neutralizing antibodies and cell‐mediated immune responses in the horse. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2008;123:230‐239.
    pubmed: 18372050
  156. Khatibzadeh SM, Gold CB, Keggan AE. West Nile virus‐specific immunoglobulin isotype responses in vaccinated and infected horses. Am J Vet Res 2015;76:92‐100.
    pmc: PMC10959050pubmed: 25535666
  157. HBLB. International Codes of Practice: West Nile Fever. 2022.
  158. AAEP. AAEP West Nile Virus Vaccination Guidelines. 2012.
  159. Petersen LR, Roehrig JT. West Nile virus: a reemerging global pathogen. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:611‐614.
    pmc: PMC2631751pubmed: 11585520
  160. Leblond A, Hendrikx P, Sabatier P. West Nile virus outbreak detection using syndromic monitoring in horses. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2007;7:403‐410.
    pubmed: 17767410
  161. Saegerman C, Alba‐Casals A, Garcia‐Bocanegra I. Clinical sentinel surveillance of equine West Nile fever, Spain. Transbound Emerg Dis 2016;63:184‐193.
    pubmed: 24899369
  162. Ward MP, Scheurmann JA. The relationship between equine and human West Nile virus disease occurrence. Vet Microbiol 2008;129:378‐383.
    pubmed: 18182255
  163. Kulasekera VL, Kramer L, Nasci RS. West Nile virus infection in mosquitoes, birds, horses, and humans, Staten Island, New York, 2000. Emerg Infect Dis 2001;7:722‐725.
    pmc: PMC2631749pubmed: 11589172
  164. Faverjon C, Vial F, Andersson MG. Early detection of West Nile virus in France: quantitative assessment of syndromic surveillance system using nervous signs in horses. Epidemiol Infect 2017;145:1044‐1057.
    pmc: PMC9507807pubmed: 27938434
  165. Corrigan RL, Waldner C, Epp T. Prediction of human cases of West Nile virus by equine cases, Saskatchewan, Canada, 2003. Prev Vet Med 2006;76:263‐272.
    pubmed: 16806542
  166. Control ECfDPa. Historical Data by Year—West Nile Virus Seasonal Surveillance. 2021.
  167. van Galen G, Calozet L, Leblond A. Can horses be clinically screened for West Nile fever?. Vet Rec 2013;172:101.
    pubmed: 23292842
  168. van den Hurk AF, Skinner E, Ritchie SA. The emergence of Japanese encephalitis virus in Australia in 2022: existing knowledge of mosquito vectors. Viruses 2022;14:1208.
    pmc: PMC9231386pubmed: 35746679
  169. Abbadi I, Lkhider M, Kitab B. Non‐primate hepacivirus transmission and prevalence: novel findings of virus circulation in horses and dogs in Morocco. Infect Genet Evol 2021;93:104975.
    pubmed: 34175479
  170. Lyons S, Kapoor A, Sharp C. Nonprimate hepaciviruses in domestic horses, United Kingdom. Emerg Infect Dis 2012;18:1976‐1982.
    pmc: PMC3557883pubmed: 23171728
  171. Drexler JF, Corman VM, Muller MA. Evidence for novel hepaciviruses in rodents. PLoS Pathog 2013;9:e1003438.
    pmc: PMC3688547pubmed: 23818848
  172. Matsuu A, Hobo S, Ando K. Genetic and serological surveillance for non‐primate hepacivirus in horses in Japan. Vet Microbiol 2015;179:219‐227.
    pubmed: 26070772
  173. Pronost S, Hue E, Fortier C. Prevalence of equine hepacivirus infections in France and evidence for two viral subtypes circulating worldwide. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017;64:1884‐1897.
    pubmed: 27882682
  174. Badenhorst M, Tegtmeyer B, Todt D. First detection and frequent occurrence of equine hepacivirus in horses on the African continent. Vet Microbiol 2018;223:51‐58.
    pubmed: 30173752

Citations

This article has been cited 13 times.
  1. Ricci I, Rosone F, Pacchiarotti G, Manna G, Cersini A, Carvelli A, La Rocca D, Cammalleri E, Giordani R, Tofani S, Conti R, Rombolà P, Nardini R, Minniti CA, Caforio R, Linardi B, Scicluna MT. Pegiviruses and Coronavirus: Biomolecular Prevalence and Phylogenetic Analysis of Strains Detected in Italian Horse Populations. Viruses 2025 Aug 2;17(8).
    doi: 10.3390/v17081076pubmed: 40872790google scholar: lookup
  2. Tolnai C, O'Sullivan C, Lőrincz M, Karvouni M, Tenk M, Marosi A, Forgách P, Paszerbovics B, Wagenhoffer Z, Kutasi O. Cellular Immune Response in Horses After West Nile Neuroinvasive Disease. Animals (Basel) 2025 Aug 11;15(16).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15162352pubmed: 40867680google scholar: lookup
  3. Busquets N, Gardela J, José-Cunilleras E, Solé A, Salvador MJ, Obón E, Molina-López R, Aranda C, Montalvo T, Corbella I, Bou-Monclús MA, Martínez MJ, Vázquez A, Piron M, Sauleda S, Pailler-García L, Napp S. West Nile virus transmission in the Metropolitan Area of Barcelona (Spain): A One-Health surveillance approach. One Health 2025 Dec;21:101150.
    doi: 10.1016/j.onehlt.2025.101150pubmed: 40746420google scholar: lookup
  4. Frisch V, Ramsauer AS, Preining I, Unterköfler MS, Fuehrer HP, Hofer M, Lyrakis M, Bouhsira E, Liénard E, Cavalleri JV. First detection of equine hepacivirus RNA in Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera, Muscidae) in eastern Austria. BMC Vet Res 2025 Jul 17;21(1):474.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-025-04890-xpubmed: 40676642google scholar: lookup
  5. Tolnai CH, Forgách P, Marosi A, Fehér O, Paszerbovics B, Tenk M, Wagenhoffer Z, Kutasi O. Long-Term Humoral Immune Response After West Nile Virus Convalescence in Horses in a Geographic Area of Multiple Orthoflavivirus Co-Circulation. J Vet Intern Med 2025 Jul-Aug;39(4):e70176.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.70176pubmed: 40525557google scholar: lookup
  6. Freick M, Vogt I, Schröter S, Kohl R, Heidl D, Schreiter R, Sprong H, Jentzsch M. Investigations on the occurrence of West Nile virus, Usutu virus and Sindbis virus RNA in avian louse flies (Diptera: Hippoboscidae) collected in Germany (2016-2022). Parasit Vectors 2025 Jun 1;18(1):200.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-025-06841-9pubmed: 40452045google scholar: lookup
  7. Chevalier N, Migné CV, Mariteragi-Helle T, Dumarest M, De Mas M, Chevrier M, Queré E, Marcillaud-Pitel C, Lupo C, Bigeard C, Touzet T, Leblond A, Durand B, Depecker M, Gonzalez G. Seroprevalence of West Nile, Usutu and tick-borne encephalitis viruses in equids from south-western France in 2023. Vet Res 2025 Apr 24;56(1):91.
    doi: 10.1186/s13567-025-01508-wpubmed: 40275349google scholar: lookup
  8. Carrasco L, Utrilla MJ, Fuentes-Romero B, Fernandez-Novo A, Martin-Maldonado B. West Nile Virus: An Update Focusing on Southern Europe. Microorganisms 2024 Dec 18;12(12).
    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms12122623pubmed: 39770826google scholar: lookup
  9. Naveed A, Eertink LG, Wang D, Li F. Lessons Learned from West Nile Virus Infection:Vaccinations in Equines and Their Implications for One Health Approaches. Viruses 2024 May 14;16(5).
    doi: 10.3390/v16050781pubmed: 38793662google scholar: lookup
  10. Nardini R, Pacchiarotti G, Svicher V, Salpini R, Bellocchi MC, Conti R, Sala MG, La Rocca D, Carioti L, Cersini A, Manna G, The Equine Hepatic Viruses Consortium, Scicluna MT. First National Prevalence in Italian Horse Population and Phylogenesis Highlight a Fourth Sub-Type Candidate of Equine Hepacivirus. Viruses 2024 Apr 16;16(4).
    doi: 10.3390/v16040616pubmed: 38675957google scholar: lookup
  11. Simonin Y. Circulation of West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus in Europe: Overview and Challenges. Viruses 2024 Apr 12;16(4).
    doi: 10.3390/v16040599pubmed: 38675940google scholar: lookup
  12. de Heus P, Bagó Z, Weidinger P, Lale D, Trachsel DS, Revilla-Fernández S, Matiasek K, Nowotny N. Severe Neurologic Disease in a Horse Caused by Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus, Austria, 2021. Viruses 2023 Sep 29;15(10).
    doi: 10.3390/v15102022pubmed: 37896799google scholar: lookup
  13. Gothe LMR, Ganzenberg S, Ziegler U, Obiegala A, Lohmann KL, Sieg M, Vahlenkamp TW, Groschup MH, Hörügel U, Pfeffer M. Horses as Sentinels for the Circulation of Flaviviruses in Eastern-Central Germany. Viruses 2023 Apr 30;15(5).
    doi: 10.3390/v15051108pubmed: 37243194google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,383 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.