FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Sci Rep / Exploring the induction and measurement of positive affectiv...
Scientific reports2025; 15(1); 18550; doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-98034-8

Exploring the induction and measurement of positive affective state in equines through a personality-centred lens.

Abstract: There is increasing focus on how to induce and measure positive affective states in animals and the development of social license to operate has brought this to the forefront within equestrianism. This study aimed to utilise a range of methods to induce and measure positive affect in horses in real-world settings. Twenty healthy horses were scored for personality, exposed to four induction methods (wither scratching, high value food provision, positive reinforcement training and the addition of an affiliative conspecific), and data collected on their behaviour (QBA and ethograms) and physiology (heart and respiratory rate, heart rate variability, eye and ear thermography and salivary cortisol). Analyses identified potentially sensitive and specific behavioural (ear and eye position, QBA items, frustration items) and physiological (RR mean, HF power, LF power, LF/HF ratio, mean HR, RMSSD and pNN50) measures of affective state across the four quadrants of core affect. Individual difference effects were found, and personality traits such as unfriendly, nervous and unresponsive were associated with differing responses to induction stimuli indicating that all four induction stimuli are potentially useful for inducing positive affect depending on their salience to the individual. Research measuring and inducing positive affect in animals rarely considers personality, but this study underscores its importance. The dimensional approach taken allowed for assessment of the broad arousal and valence components of affect without ascribing measures to discrete emotions. Accurate, real-world measures of affect could benefit 116 million equines globally, and exploring ways to promote positive affect in horses can significantly enhance their welfare.
© 2025. The Author(s).
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-05-27 PubMed ID: 40425817PubMed Central: PMC12116887DOI: 10.1038/s41598-025-98034-8Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research study examines the induction and measurement of positive emotional states in horses, considering personality as a key factor. The study finds that methods to induce positive emotions and the reaction to these methods can be highly individual and can be associated with certain personality traits.

Research Methods

  • The study involved twenty healthy horses, whose personalities were first evaluated.
  • The researchers used four different methods to induce positive emotional states: wither scratching, providing high-value food, positive reinforcement training, and the introduction of a friendly horse.
  • Measurements were taken of the horses’ behavior and physiological reactions. Behavior was assessed through qualitative behavior assessment and ethograms, which record observable behaviors. Physiological measurements included heart and respiratory rates, temperature changes in the eye and ear, and cortisol levels in saliva.
  • Both behavioral and physiological measurements were undertaken to give a comprehensive insight into the emotional state of the horses.

Findings

  • By analyzing the measurements, the researchers could identify specific behavioral and physiological indicators of the horses’ emotional states. For example, eye and ear positions, and items related to frustration were effective behavioral indicators, while heart and respiratory rates, along with their variability, were informative physiological markers.
  • The study found a strong connection between the horses’ personalities and their reactions to the different positive-induction methods. For example, horses deemed to be unfriendly or nervous responded differently compared to those tagged as unresponsive.
  • The research underscored the importance of considering an animal’s personality when attempting to induce positive emotional states, as different approaches may be more effective depending on the individual animal’s temperament.

Implications

  • This study provides a significant development in the field of animal welfare, especially concerning the welfare of horses. It presents individual-based strategies that cater to the personality of the animal, with the aim to elicit positive emotional responses effectively.
  • This approach could have wider applications for the care and training of horses, leading to improved welfare for the estimated 116 million horses worldwide.

Cite This Article

APA
Loftus L, Newman A, Leach M, Asher L. (2025). Exploring the induction and measurement of positive affective state in equines through a personality-centred lens. Sci Rep, 15(1), 18550. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-98034-8

Publication

Scientific reports
ISSN: 2045-2322
NlmUniqueID: 101563288
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 15
Issue: 1
Pages: 18550
PII: 18550

Researcher Affiliations

Loftus, Loni
  • School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK. i.l.loftus@newcastle.ac.uk.
  • Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and the Roslin Institute, Easter Bush Campus, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK. i.l.loftus@newcastle.ac.uk.
  • University Centre Askham Bryan, Askham Bryan, York, YO23 3FR, UK. i.l.loftus@newcastle.ac.uk.
Newman, Amy
  • University Centre Askham Bryan, Askham Bryan, York, YO23 3FR, UK.
Leach, Matthew
  • Comparative Biology Centre, Medical School, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4HH, UK.
Asher, Lucy
  • School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Horses / physiology
  • Horses / psychology
  • Behavior, Animal / physiology
  • Male
  • Personality / physiology
  • Heart Rate / physiology
  • Female
  • Affect / physiology
  • Hydrocortisone / metabolism

Conflict of Interest Statement

Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

References

This article includes 153 references
  1. Mendl, M. & Paul, E. S. In Mental Health and Well-Being in Animals (ed. McMillan, F. D.) 328–344 (CABI, 2020).
  2. Mendl M, Burman O H P, Paul E S. An integrative and functional framework for the study of animal emotion and mood. Proc. R. Soc. 277, 2895–2904 (2010).
    pmc: PMC2982018pubmed: 20685706doi: 10.1098/rspb.2010.0303google scholar: lookup
  3. Boissy A, Lee C. How assessing relationships between emotions and cognition can improve farm animal welfare. Rev. Sci. Tech. 33, 103–110 (2014).
    pubmed: 25000782doi: 10.20506/rst.33.1.2260google scholar: lookup
  4. Blumenthal A L. A Reappraisal of Wilhelm Wundt. American Psychological Association, 2002.
  5. Reimert I, Webb L E, van Marwijk M A, Bolhuis J E. Review: Towards an integrated concept of animal welfare. Animal 17, 100838 (2023).
    pubmed: 37612226doi: 10.1016/j.animal.2023.100838google scholar: lookup
  6. Douglas J, Owers R, Campbell M H. Social licence to operate: What can equestrian sports learn from other industries?. Animals 12, 1987 (2022).
    pmc: PMC9367437pubmed: 35953977doi: 10.3390/ani12151987google scholar: lookup
  7. Heleski C R. Social license to operate—why public perception matters for horse sport—some personal reflections. J. Equine Vet. 124, 104266 (2023).
    pubmed: 36898616doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2023.104266google scholar: lookup
  8. Paul E S, Sher S, Tamietto M, Winkielman P, Mendl M T. Towards a comparative science of emotion: Affect and consciousness in humans and animals. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 108, 749–770 (2020).
    pmc: PMC6966324pubmed: 31778680doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.11.014google scholar: lookup
  9. Boissy A. Emotions and cognition: A new approach to animal welfare. Anim. Welf. 16, 37–43 (2007).
    doi: 10.1017/s0962728600031717google scholar: lookup
  10. Panksepp J. The basic emotional circuits of mammalian brains: Do animals have affective lives?. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 35, 1791–1804 (2011).
    pubmed: 21872619doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.08.003google scholar: lookup
  11. Harding E J, Paul E S, Mendl M. Cognitive bias and affective state. Nature 427, 312–312 (2004).
    pubmed: 14737158doi: 10.1038/427312agoogle scholar: lookup
  12. Mendl M, Burman O H P, Parker R M A, Paul E S. Cognitive bias as an indicator of animal emotion and welfare: Emerging evidence and underlying mechanisms. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 118, 161–181 (2009).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2009.02.023google scholar: lookup
  13. Dalla Costa E. Welfare assessment of horses: The AWIN approach. Anim. Welf. 25, 481–488 (2016).
    doi: 10.7120/09627286.25.4.481google scholar: lookup
  14. Temple D, Manteca X, Velarde A, Dalmau A. Assessment of animal welfare through behavioural parameters in Iberian pigs in intensive and extensive conditions. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 131, 29–39 (2011).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2011.01.013google scholar: lookup
  15. Andreasen S N, Wemelsfelder F, Sandøe P, Forkman B. The correlation of Qualitative Behavior Assessments with Welfare Quality® protocol outcomes in on-farm welfare assessment of dairy cattle. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 143, 9–17 (2013).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2012.11.013google scholar: lookup
  16. Hall C, Heleski C. The role of the ethogram in equitation science. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 190, 102–110 (2017).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.02.013google scholar: lookup
  17. Draaisma R. Language Signs and calming Signals of Horses: Recognition and Application. CRC Press, 2017.
  18. Wathan J, Burrows A, Waller B M, McComb K. EquiFACS: The equine facial action coding system. PLoS ONE 10, e0131738 (2015).
    pmc: PMC4526551pubmed: 26244573doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0131738google scholar: lookup
  19. Lansade L, Lemarchand J, Reigner F, Arnould C, Bertin A. Automatic brushes induce positive emotions and foster positive social interactions in group-housed horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 246, 105538 (2022).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105538google scholar: lookup
  20. Lansade L. Facial expression and oxytocin as possible markers of positive emotions in horses. Sci. Rep. 8, 1–11 (2018).
    pmc: PMC6168541pubmed: 30279565doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-32993-zgoogle scholar: lookup
  21. Trösch M. Horses feel emotions when they watch positive and negative horse–human interactions in a video and transpose what they saw to real life. Anim. Cogn. 23, 643–653 (2020).
    pubmed: 32162112doi: 10.1007/s10071-020-01369-0google scholar: lookup
  22. Rogers L J, Vallortigara G, Andrew R J. Divided Brains: The Biology and Behaviour of Brain Asymmetries. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
  23. Baragli P, Scopa C, Felici M, Reddon A R. Horses show individual level lateralisation when inspecting an unfamiliar and unexpected stimulus. PLoS ONE 16, e0255688 (2021).
    pmc: PMC8341651pubmed: 34351986doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0255688google scholar: lookup
  24. Felici M, Reddon A R, Maglieri V, Lanatà A, Baragli P. Heart and brain: Change in cardiac entropy is related to lateralised visual inspection in horses. PLoS ONE 18, e0289753 (2023).
    pmc: PMC10409287pubmed: 37552685doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0289753google scholar: lookup
  25. Amsel A. Frustration Theory: An Analysis of Dispositional Learning and Memory. Cambridge University Press, 1992.
  26. Dollard J. Frustration and Aggression. Vol. 4, Routledge, 2013.
  27. Hintze S, Murphy E, Bachmann I, Wemelsfelder F, Würbel H. Qualitative Behaviour Assessment of horses exposed to short-term emotional treatments. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 196, 44–51 (2017).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.06.012google scholar: lookup
  28. Pannewitz L, Loftus L. Frustration in horses: Investigating expert opinion on behavioural indicators and causes using a Delphi consultation. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 258, 105818 (2023).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2022.105818google scholar: lookup
  29. Munsters C C B M, Visser E K, van den Broek J, van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan M M S. The influence of challenging objects and horse-rider matching on heart rate, heart rate variability and behavioural score in riding horses. Vet. J. 192, 75–80 (2012).
    pubmed: 21612959doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.04.011google scholar: lookup
  30. von Lewinski M. Cortisol release, heart rate and heart rate variability in the horse and its rider: Different responses to training and performance. Vet. J. 197, 229–232 (2013).
    pubmed: 23380228doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.12.025google scholar: lookup
  31. Villas-Boas J D. Behavioural, endocrine and cardiac autonomic responses to a model of startle in horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 174, 76–82 (2016).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2015.10.005google scholar: lookup
  32. Schmidt A, Aurich J, Möstl E, Müller J, Aurich C. Changes in cortisol release and heart rate and heart rate variability during the initial training of 3-year-old sport horses. Horm. Behav. 58, 628–636 (2010).
    pubmed: 20600048doi: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.06.011google scholar: lookup
  33. Jansen F. Online detection of an emotional response of a horse during physical activity. Vet. J. 181, 38–42 (2009).
    pubmed: 19375961doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.03.017google scholar: lookup
  34. Visser E. Responses of horses in behavioural tests correlate with temperament assessed by riders. Equine Vet. J. 35, 176–183 (2003).
    pubmed: 12638795doi: 10.2746/042516403776114108google scholar: lookup
  35. Buchanan T W, Al’Absi M, Lovallo W R. Cortisol fluctuates with increases and decreases in negative affect. Psychoneuroendocrinology 24, 227–241 (1999).
    pubmed: 10101730doi: 10.1016/s0306-4530(98)00078-xgoogle scholar: lookup
  36. Pawluski J. Low plasma cortisol and fecal cortisol metabolite measures as indicators of compromised welfare in domestic horses (Equus caballus). PLoS ONE 12, e0182257 (2017).
    pmc: PMC5590897pubmed: 28886020doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0182257google scholar: lookup
  37. Ralph C R, Tilbrook A J. Invited review: The usefulness of measuring glucocorticoids for assessing animal welfare. J. Anim. Sci. 94, 457–470 (2016).
    pubmed: 27065116doi: 10.2527/jas.2015-9645google scholar: lookup
  38. Peeters M, Sulon J, Beckers J F, Ledoux D, Vandenheede M. Comparison between blood serum and salivary cortisol concentrations in horses using an adrenocorticotropic hormone challenge. Equine Vet. J. 43, 487–493 (2011).
    pubmed: 21496072doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00294.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  39. Briefer E F. Perception of emotional valence in horse whinnies. Front. Zool. 14, 1–12 (2017).
    pmc: PMC5303229pubmed: 28203263doi: 10.1186/s12983-017-0193-1google scholar: lookup
  40. Menchetti L, Dalla Costa E, Minero M, Padalino B. Development and validation of a test for the classification of horses as broken or unbroken. Animals 11, 2303 (2021).
    pmc: PMC8388372pubmed: 34438758doi: 10.3390/ani11082303google scholar: lookup
  41. Waran N, Randle H. What we can measure, we can manage: The importance of using robust welfare indicators in Equitation Science. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 190, 74–81 (2017).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2017.02.016google scholar: lookup
  42. Ramirez Montes De Oca M A. Temperature asymmetries in facial areas as indicators of affective state in dairy calves and horses. PhD thesis, University of Bristol (2021).
  43. Kappel S. Towards the validation of novel cognitive and physiological indicators of affective state in horses (Equus caballus). PhD thesis, University of Plymouth (2023).
  44. Hall C, Randle H, Pearson G, Preshaw L, Waran N. Assessing equine emotional state. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 205, 183–193 (2018).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2018.03.006google scholar: lookup
  45. Thorbergson Z W, Nielsen S G, Beaulieu R J, Doyle R E. Physiological and behavioral responses of horses to wither scratching and patting the neck when under saddle. J. Appl. Anim. Welf. Sci. 19, 245–259 (2016).
    pubmed: 26958705doi: 10.1080/10888705.2015.1130630google scholar: lookup
  46. Watson J C, McDonnell S M. Effects of three non-confrontational handling techniques on the behavior of horses during a simulated mildly aversive veterinary procedure. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 203, 19–23 (2018).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2018.02.007google scholar: lookup
  47. Peterson C B. Psychometric properties of the eating disorder examination-questionnaire: Factor structure and internal consistency. Int. J. Eat. Disord. 40, 386–389 (2007).
    pubmed: 17304585doi: 10.1002/eat.20373google scholar: lookup
  48. Zuckerman, M. In Advanced Personality (eds Barone, D. F. et al.) 123–154 (Springer, 1998).
  49. Akiskal, H. S. In Psychosocial Aspects of Depression (eds Becker, J. & Kleinman, A.) 215–236 (Routledge, 1990).
  50. Gunnar Götestam K, Svebak S, Naper Jensen E. The role of personality, mood, subjective health, and stress in depressive symptoms among high school students. Eur. J. Psychiatry 22, 121–129 (2008).
    doi: 10.4321/s0213-61632008000300001google scholar: lookup
  51. Mills D S. Personality and individual differences in the horse, their significance, use and measurement. Equine Vet. J. 30, 10–13 (1998).
    pubmed: 10484996doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1998.tb05137.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  52. Gosling S D. Personality in non-human animals. Soc. Pers. Psychol. Compass 2, 985–1001 (2008).
    doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00087.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  53. Hausberger M, Muller C, Lunel C. Does work affect personality? A study in horses. PLoS ONE 6, e14659 (2011).
    pmc: PMC3036583pubmed: 21347405doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0014659google scholar: lookup
  54. Sih A. Animal personality and state–behaviour feedbacks: A review and guide for empiricists. Trends Ecol. Evol. 30, 50–60 (2015).
    pubmed: 25498413doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2014.11.004google scholar: lookup
  55. Gartner M C, Powell D M, Weiss A. Comparison of subjective well-being and personality assessments in the clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa), Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia), and African Lion (Panthera leo). J. Appl. Anim. Welf. Sci. 19, 294–302 (2016).
    pubmed: 26983676doi: 10.1080/10888705.2016.1141057google scholar: lookup
  56. Robinson L M, Waran N K, Handel I, Leach M C. Happiness, welfare, and personality in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 236, 105268 (2021).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105268google scholar: lookup
  57. Loftus L, Asher L, Leach M C. Inducing and measuring positive affective state in equines: A Delphi consultation. In prep.
    pubmed: 40339901
  58. McGreevy P. Equine Behavior: A Guide for Veterinarians and Equine Scientist 2nd edn.. Elsevier, 2012.
  59. Kieson E, Felix C, Webb S, Abramson C I. The effects of a choice test between food rewards and human interaction in a herd of domestic horses of varying breeds and experiences. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 231, 105075 (2020).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105075google scholar: lookup
  60. Peters S M, Bleijenberg E H, van Dierendonck M C, van der Harst J E, Spruijt B M. Characterization of anticipatory behaviour in domesticated horses (Equus caballus). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 138, 60–69 (2012).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2012.01.018google scholar: lookup
  61. Elia J B, Erb H N, Houpt K A. Motivation for hay: Effects of a pelleted diet on behavior and physiology of horses. Physiol. Behav. 101, 623–627 (2010).
    pubmed: 20869976doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.09.010google scholar: lookup
  62. Kimura R. Mutual grooming and preferred associate relationships in a band of free-ranging horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 59, 265–276 (1998).
    doi: 10.1016/s0168-1591(97)00129-9google scholar: lookup
  63. Heitor F, do Mar Oom M, Vicente L. Social relationships in a herd of Sorraia horses. Part II Factors affecting affiliative relationships and sexual behaviours. Behav. Process. 73, 231–239 (2006).
    pubmed: 16828984doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2006.05.005google scholar: lookup
  64. Ransom J I, Cade B S. Quantifying equid behavior—a research ethogram for free-roaming feral horses. US Geological Survey Techniques and Methods, 2009.
  65. Spinka M. Social dimension of emotions and its implication for animal welfare. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 138, 170–181 (2012).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2012.02.005google scholar: lookup
  66. Hausberger M. Mutual interactions between cognition and welfare: The horse as an animal model. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 107, 540–559 (2019).
    pubmed: 31491471doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.08.022google scholar: lookup
  67. Sankey C, Richard-Yris M-A, Leroy H, Henry S, Hausberger M. Positive interactions lead to lasting positive memories in horses, Equus caballus. Anim. Behav. 79, 869–875 (2010).
    doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.12.037google scholar: lookup
  68. Sankey C. Reinforcement as a mediator of the perception of humans by horses (Equus caballus). Anim. Cogn. 13, 753–764 (2010).
    pubmed: 20490592doi: 10.1007/s10071-010-0326-9google scholar: lookup
  69. Innes L, McBride S D. Negative versus positive reinforcement: An evaluation of training strategies for rehabilitated horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 112, 357–368 (2008).
  70. Feh C, de Mazières J. Grooming at a preferred site reduces heart rate in horses. Anim. Behav. 46, 1191–1194 (1993).
    doi: 10.1006/anbe.1993.1309google scholar: lookup
  71. VanDierendonck M C, Spruijt B M. Coping in groups of domestic horses—Review from a social and neurobiological perspective. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 138, 194–202 (2012).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2012.02.007google scholar: lookup
  72. Fraser A. The behaviour and welfare of the horse. CABI, 2010.
  73. Janczarek I. Emotional excitability and behaviour of horses in response to stroking various regions of the body. Anim. Sci. J. 89, 1599–1608 (2018).
    pubmed: 30155991doi: 10.1111/asj.13104google scholar: lookup
  74. Normando S. Effect of manual imitation of grooming on riding horses’ heart rate in different environmental situations. Vet. Res. Commun. 27, 615–617 (2003).
    pubmed: 14535480
  75. Rochais C. Horses’ tactile reactivity differs according to the type of work: The example of equine-assisted intervention. Vet. Sci. 10, 130 (2023).
    pmc: PMC9959874pubmed: 36851434doi: 10.3390/vetsci10020130google scholar: lookup
  76. Loftus L, Murchie C, Asher L, Leach M C. The development of the Equine Personality Eight-factor Model (EPEM). In Prep.
  77. Tomberg C, Petagna M, de Selliers de Moranville L-A. Horses (Equus caballus) facial micro-expressions: Insight into discreet social information. Sci. Rep. 13, 8625 (2023).
    pmc: PMC10224940pubmed: 37244937doi: 10.1038/s41598-023-35807-zgoogle scholar: lookup
  78. Bornmann T, Randle H, Williams J. Investigating equestrians’ perceptions of horse happiness: An exploratory study. J. Equine Vet. 104, 103697 (2021).
    pubmed: 34416986
  79. Ricci-Bonot C, Mills D S. Recognising the facial expression of frustration in the horse during feeding period. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 265, 105966 (2023).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2023.105966google scholar: lookup
  80. Hintze S, Schanz L. Using the judgment bias task to identify behavioral indicators of affective state: Do eye wrinkles in horses reflect mood?. Front. Vet. Sci. 8, 676888 (2021).
    pmc: PMC8295722pubmed: 34307525doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.676888google scholar: lookup
  81. Des Roches A D B, Richard-Yris M A, Henry S, Ezzaouïa M, Hausberger M. Laterality and emotions: Visual laterality in the domestic horse (Equus caballus) differs with objects’ emotional value. Physiol. Behav. 94, 487–490 (2008).
    pubmed: 18455205doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.03.002google scholar: lookup
  82. Leliveld L M, Langbein J, Puppe B. The emergence of emotional lateralization: evidence in non-human vertebrates and implications for farm animals. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 145, 1–14 (2013).
  83. Evans L, Cameron-Whytock H, Ijichi C. Eye understand: Physiological measures as novel predictors of adaptive learning in horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 271, 106152 (2024).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2023.106152google scholar: lookup
  84. Loftus L, Marks K, Jones-McVey R, Gonzales J L, Fowler V L. Monty Roberts’ public demonstrations: Preliminary report on the heart rate and heart rate variability of horses undergoing training during live audience events. Animals 6, 55 (2016).
    pmc: PMC5035950pubmed: 27618108
  85. Scopa C. Inside the interaction: Contact with familiar humans modulates heart rate variability in horses. Front. Vet. Sci. 7, 582759 (2020).
    pmc: PMC7734029pubmed: 33330706doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.582759google scholar: lookup
  86. Aurich J. Effects of season, age, sex, and housing on salivary cortisol concentrations in horses. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 52, 11–16 (2015).
    pubmed: 25700267
  87. Christensen J W. Rider effects on horses’ conflict behaviour, rein tension, physiological measures and rideability scores. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 234, 105184 (2021).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105184google scholar: lookup
  88. De Mira M C. Salivary cortisol and eye temperature changes during endurance competitions. BMC Vet. Res. 17, 1–12 (2021).
    pmc: PMC8515720pubmed: 34649565doi: 10.1186/s12917-021-02985-9google scholar: lookup
  89. Hall C, Kay R, Yarnell K. Assessing ridden horse behavior: Professional judgment and physiological measures. J. Vet. Behav. 9, 22–29 (2014).
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2013.09.005google scholar: lookup
  90. Jastrzębska E. Conflict behavior in show jumping horses: A field study. J. Equine Vet. 57, 116–121 (2017).
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2017.07.009google scholar: lookup
  91. Jolivald A. An Investigation into Physiological Correlates of Equine Personality. Nottingham Trent University (2021).
  92. Reefmann N, Kaszas F B, Wechsler B, Gygax L. Physiological expression of emotional reactions in sheep. Physiol. Behav. 98, 235–241 (2009).
    pubmed: 19490924doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.05.017google scholar: lookup
  93. Boiten F A. The effects of emotional behaviour on components of the respiratory cycle. Biol. Psychol. 49, 29–51 (1998).
    pubmed: 9792483doi: 10.1016/s0301-0511(98)00025-8google scholar: lookup
  94. Boiten F A, Frijda N H, Wientjes C J E. Emotions and respiratory patterns: Review and critical analysis. Int. J. Psychophysiol. 17, 103–128 (1994).
    pubmed: 7995774doi: 10.1016/0167-8760(94)90027-2google scholar: lookup
  95. AWIN. AWIN Welfare assessment protocol for horses. 2015.
    pmc: PMC5789302pubmed: 29303962
  96. Minero M. Using qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) to explore the emotional state of horses and its association with human-animal relationship. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 204, 53–59 (2018).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2018.04.008google scholar: lookup
  97. Ruet A. Horse welfare: A joint assessment of four categories of behavioural indicators using the AWIN protocol, scan sampling and surveys. Anim. Welf. 31, 455–466 (2022).
    doi: 10.7120/09627286.31.3.008google scholar: lookup
  98. Wright J S, Panksepp J. An evolutionary framework to understand foraging, wanting, and desire: The neuropsychology of the SEEKING system. Neuropsychoanalysis 14, 5–39 (2012).
    doi: 10.1080/15294145.2012.10773683google scholar: lookup
  99. Sifneos P E. Affect, emotional conflict, and deficit: An overview. Psychother. Psychosom. 56, 116–122 (1991).
    pubmed: 1758954
  100. Maroco J. Data mining methods in the prediction of Dementia: A real-data comparison of the accuracy, sensitivity and specificity of linear discriminant analysis, logistic regression, neural networks, support vector machines, classification trees and random forests. BMC Res. Notes 4, 299 (2011).
    pmc: PMC3180705pubmed: 21849043doi: 10.1186/1756-0500-4-299google scholar: lookup
  101. Russell J A. Core affect and the psychological construction of emotion. Psychol. Rev. 110, 145 (2003).
    pubmed: 12529060doi: 10.1037/0033-295x.110.1.145google scholar: lookup
  102. Burgdorf J, Panksepp J. The neurobiology of positive emotions. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 30, 173–187 (2006).
    pubmed: 16099508doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2005.06.001google scholar: lookup
  103. Kaźmierczak M, Nicola S M. The arousal-motor hypothesis of dopamine function: Evidence that dopamine facilitates reward seeking in part by maintaining arousal. Neuroscience 499, 64–103 (2022).
    pmc: PMC9479757pubmed: 35853563doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.07.008google scholar: lookup
  104. Kim J, Jung H, Yoon M. Relationship between plasma dopamine concentration and temperament in horses. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 83, 106788 (2023).
    pubmed: 37087888doi: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2023.106788google scholar: lookup
  105. Kienapfel K, Link Y, König V, Borstel U. Prevalence of different head-neck positions in horses shown at dressage competitions and their relation to conflict behaviour and performance marks. PLoS ONE 9, e103140 (2014).
    pmc: PMC4121138pubmed: 25090242doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0103140google scholar: lookup
  106. Valenchon M, Lévy F, Fortin M, Leterrier C, Lansade L. Stress and temperament affect working memory performance for disappearing food in horses, Equus caballus. Anim. Behav. 86, 1233–1240 (2013).
  107. Valenchon M, Lévy F, Moussu C, Lansade L. Stress affects instrumental learning based on positive or negative reinforcement in interaction with personality in domestic horses. PLoS ONE 12, e0170783 (2017).
    pmc: PMC5419560pubmed: 28475581
  108. Jolliffe I T, Cadima J. Principal component analysis: A review and recent developments. Philos. Trans. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 374, 20150202 (2016).
    pmc: PMC4792409pubmed: 26953178doi: 10.1098/rsta.2015.0202google scholar: lookup
  109. Lansade L, Neveux C, Levy F. A few days of social separation affects yearling horses’ response to emotional reactivity tests and enhances learning performance. Behav. Proc. 91, 94–102 (2012).
    pubmed: 22705773doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2012.06.003google scholar: lookup
  110. Fureix C, Jego P, Henry S, Lansade L, Hausberger M. A preliminary study of the effects of handling type on horses’ emotional reactivity and the human–horse relationship. Behav. Proc. 82, 202–210 (2009).
    pubmed: 19591910doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2009.06.012google scholar: lookup
  111. Löckener S, Reese S, Erhard M, Wöhr A C. Pasturing in herds after housing in horseboxes induces a positive cognitive bias in horses. J. Vet. Behav. 11, 50–55 (2016).
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2015.11.005google scholar: lookup
  112. Vazire, S., Gosling, S. D., Dickey, A. S. & Schapiro, S. J. In Handbook of Research Methods in Personality Psychology (eds Robins, R. W. et al.) 190–206 (The Guilford Press, 2007).
  113. Woodrum Setser M M, Neave H W, Costa J H C. The history, implementation, and application of personality tests in livestock animals and their links to performance. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 268, 106081 (2023).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2023.106081google scholar: lookup
  114. Weiss A, Robinson L. Subjective well-being, happiness, and personality in animals. CABI, 2020, 111–122.
    doi: 10.1079/9781786393401.0111google scholar: lookup
  115. Williams E, Chadwick C L, Yon L, Asher L. A review of current indicators of welfare in captive elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus). Anim. Welf. 27, 235–249 (2018).
    doi: 10.7120/09627286.27.3.235google scholar: lookup
  116. Kuppens P. The relation between valence and arousal in subjective experience varies with personality and culture. J. Pers. 85, 530–542 (2017).
    pubmed: 27102867
  117. Stratton R. Assessment of positive emotion in horses. PhD thesis, Massey University, University of New Zealand (2022).
  118. Leiner L, Fendt M. Behavioural fear and heart rate responses of horses after exposure to novel objects: Effects of habituation. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 131, 104–109 (2011).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2011.02.004google scholar: lookup
  119. Stull C L, Rodiek A V. Effects of cross-tying horses during 24 h of road transport. Equine Vet. J. 34, 550–555 (2002).
    pubmed: 12357993doi: 10.2746/042516402776180214google scholar: lookup
  120. Birke L. Horses’ responses to variation in human approach. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 134, 56–63 (2011).
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2011.06.002google scholar: lookup
  121. Górecka A, Bakuniak M, Chruszczewski M H, Jezierski T A. A note on the habituation to novelty in horses: handler effect. Anim. Sci. Pap. Rep. 25, 143–152 (2007).
  122. Zhao D, Wang Y, Li B. Eye preference for emotional stimuli in Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys. Folia Primatol. 91, 630–642 (2020).
    pubmed: 32937622doi: 10.1159/000509442google scholar: lookup
  123. McDonnell S M, Poulin A. Equid play ethogram. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 78, 263–290 (2002).
    doi: 10.1016/s0168-1591(02)00112-0google scholar: lookup
  124. Sigurjónsdóttir H, Van Dierendonck M C, Snorrason S, Thórhallsdóttir A G. Social relationships in a group of horses without a mature stallion. Behaviour 140, 783–804 (2003).
    doi: 10.1163/156853903322370670google scholar: lookup
  125. Ninomiya S, Kusunose R, Sato S, Terada M, Sugawara K. Effects of feeding methods on eating frustration in stabled horses. Anim. Sci. J. 75, 465–469 (2004).
    doi: 10.1111/j.1740-0929.2004.00214.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  126. RedGorilla. Gorilla Tub Mini Shallow 5L. https://www.redgorilla.red/products/gorilla-tub-mini-5l?variant=47370075570486 (2024).
  127. McDonnell S M. The Equid Ethogram: A Practical Field Guide to Horse Behavior. Eclipse Press, 2003.
  128. Waring G H. Horse Behaviour. The behavioral Traits and Adaptations of Domestic and Wild Horses, Including Ponies 2nd edn.. William Andrew, 1983.
  129. Vasconcellos A S. Training reduces stress in human-socialised wolves to the same degree as in dogs. PLoS ONE 11, e0162389 (2016).
    pmc: PMC5017772pubmed: 27611784
  130. Puppe B, Ernst K, Schön P C, Manteuffel G. Cognitive enrichment affects behavioural reactivity in domestic pigs. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 105, 75–86 (2007).
  131. Martin P, Bateson P. Measuring Behaviour: An Introductory Guide. Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  132. Malik M. Heart rate variability: Standards of measurement, physiological interpretation and clinical use. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. Circulation 93, 1043–1065 (1996).
    pubmed: 8598068doi: 10.1161/01.cir.93.5.1043google scholar: lookup
  133. Kędzierski W, Strzelec K, Cywińska A, Kowalik S. Salivary cortisol concentration in exercised thoroughbred horses. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 33, 1106–1109 (2013).
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2013.04.011google scholar: lookup
  134. Alhajj M, Zubair M, Farhana A. Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay. StatPearls, 2023.
    pubmed: 32310382
  135. Kim S-M, Cho G-J. Validation of eye temperature assessed using infrared thermography as an indicator of welfare in horses. Appl. Sci. 11, 7186 (2021).
    doi: 10.3390/app11167186google scholar: lookup
  136. Tarvainen M P, Niskanen J-P, Lipponen J A, Ranta-aho P O, Karjalainen P A. Kubios HRV—Heart rate variability analysis software. Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 113, 210–220 (2014).
    pubmed: 24054542doi: 10.1016/j.cmpb.2013.07.024google scholar: lookup
  137. Hänninen L, Pastell M. CowLog: Open source software for coding behaviors from digital video. Behav. Res. Methods 41, 472–476 (2009).
    pubmed: 19363187doi: 10.3758/brm.41.2.472google scholar: lookup
  138. Pastell M. CowLog—Cross-platform application for coding behaviours from video. J. Open Res. Softw. 4, 15 (2016).
    doi: 10.5334/jors.113google scholar: lookup
  139. Masko M, Domino M, Lewczuk D, Jasinski T, Gajewski Z. Horse behavior, physiology and emotions during habituation to a treadmill. Animals 10, 921 (2020).
    pmc: PMC7341274pubmed: 32466423doi: 10.3390/ani10060921google scholar: lookup
  140. Bennett-Wimbush K, Amstutz M, Duthie M. Effects of overcheck use on stress parameters and welfare implications in driving horses. J. Appl. Anim. Welf. Sci. 23, 83–94 (2020).
    pubmed: 30897349doi: 10.1080/10888705.2019.1594229google scholar: lookup
  141. Contalbrigo L. Equine-assisted interventions (EAIs) for children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD): Behavioural and physiological indices of stress in domestic horses (Equus caballus) during riding sessions. Animals 11, 1562 (2021).
    pmc: PMC8227027pubmed: 34071859doi: 10.3390/ani11061562google scholar: lookup
  142. Cerasoli F. Assessment of welfare in groups of horses with different management, environments and activities by measuring cortisol in horsehair, using liquid chromatography coupled to hybrid orbitrap high-resolution mass spectrometry. Animals 12, 1739 (2022).
    pmc: PMC9312200pubmed: 35883286doi: 10.3390/ani12141739google scholar: lookup
  143. Kremer L, Klein Holkenborg S E J, Reimert I, Bolhuis J E, Webb L E. The nuts and bolts of animal emotion. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 113, 273–286 (2020).
    pubmed: 31982603doi: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.028google scholar: lookup
  144. Marinier S, Alexander A. The use of a maze in testing learning and memory in horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 39, 177–182 (1994).
  145. Dalla Costa E, Murray L, Dai F, Canali E, Minero M. Equine on-farm welfare assessment: A review of animal-based indicators. Anim. Welf. 23, 323–341 (2014).
    doi: 10.7120/09627286.23.3.323google scholar: lookup
  146. McGreevy P D, Oddie C, Burton F L, McLean A N. The horse-human dyad: Can we align horse training and handling activities with the equid social ethogram?. Vet. J. 181, 12–18 (2009).
    pubmed: 19375965doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.03.005google scholar: lookup
  147. Fortin M. Emotional state and personality influence cognitive flexibility in horses (Equus caballus). J. Comp. Psychol. 132, 130–140 (2018).
    pubmed: 29517248doi: 10.1037/com0000091google scholar: lookup
  148. Lansade L. Personality and predisposition to form habit behaviours during instrumental conditioning in horses (Equus caballus). PLoS ONE 12, e0171010 (2017).
    pmc: PMC5291538pubmed: 28158199doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0171010google scholar: lookup
  149. Fureix C, Jego P, Henry S, Lansade L, Hausberger M. Towards an ethological animal model of depression? A study on horses. PLoS ONE 7, e39280 (2012).
    pmc: PMC3386251pubmed: 22761752doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0039280google scholar: lookup
  150. R Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, 2023.
  151. Voudouris K. Direct human-AI comparison in the animal-AI environment. Front. Psychol. 13, 711821 (2022).
    pmc: PMC9172850pubmed: 35686061doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.711821google scholar: lookup
  152. Jöreskog K G. Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology. Springer, 1988, 207–230.
  153. Cleophas T J. Carryover bias in clinical investigations. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 33, 799–804 (1993).
    pubmed: 8227475doi: 10.1002/j.1552-4604.1993.tb01954.xgoogle scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.