FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Front Vet Sci / Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks are unable to transstadially...
Frontiers in veterinary science2025; 12; 1572944; doi: 10.3389/fvets.2025.1572944

Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks are unable to transstadially transmit Theileria haneyi to horses.

Abstract: The recent discovery of , a tick-borne hemoparasite that causes mild clinical signs of equine piroplasmosis, has added complexity to the diagnosis of this reportable disease, which is prevalent among equids globally. Knowledge gaps regarding competent tick vectors that can transmit and the recent outbreak of in the US has prompted us to conduct this study. Our objective was to investigate whether can transstadially transmit to horses. Unassigned: larvae (0.5 g) and nymphs ( = 500) were fed on a splenectomized -infected horse for parasite acquisition. During the tick feeding period, parasitemia was monitored using nested PCR (nPCR) and blood smear analysis. The acquisition ticks fed until repletion and were transferred to an incubator for molting. Concomitantly, red blood cells (RBCs) were collected from the acquisition horse for further infection. Freshly molted nymphs ( = 282) and adults ( = 212), 22 offsprings of the acquisition larvae and nymphs, respectively, were placed on two individual naïve spleen-intact horses for transstadial parasite transmission. Another naïve horse was inoculated with 1 mL of RBCs from the acquisition horse. After tick infestation and RBC inoculation, the transmission horses were monitored for 38 days for the presence of DNA in their peripheral blood using nPCR, as well as for any clinical signs of infection. Unassigned: The splenectomized acquisition horse developed canonical signs of acute infection during tick acquisition. The percentage of parasitized RBCs in the acquisition horse varied between 2.2 and 8.1% during the tick feeding stage. Out of a subset of 10 engorged larvae that fed on the acquisition horse, all ticks tested nPCR positive for However, only 4 out of 10 engorged nymphs that fed on the acquisition horse tested PCR positive for . We found no evidence for the presence of parasite DNA in the transmission ticks or in the horse's blood nor did we observe any clinical signs of infection in the transmission horses. In contrast, the horse inoculated with RBCs from the acquisition horse tested nPCR positive for 15 days after inoculation. It showed parasites in blood smear and developed canonical clinical signs of acute infection. Unassigned: The findings show that ticks cannot transstadially transmit to horses.
Copyright © 2025 Poh, Oyen, Onzere, Kappmeyer and Bastos.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-04-02 PubMed ID: 40241805PubMed Central: PMC11999960DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2025.1572944Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The study investigated if Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks could transmit Theileria haneyi, a new tick-borne pathogen, to horses. The findings showed that these ticks are unable to transmit the pathogen to horses.

Background of the Study

  • This research was conducted following the recent discovery of Theileria haneyi, a tick-borne parasite causing mild signs of equine piroplasmosis.
  • The newfound complexity added to diagnosing this disease and the recent outbreak in the US necessitated understanding competent tick vectors capable of transmitting Theileria haneyi. Hence, the study aims to investigate if Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks could transmit the parasite to horses.

Methodology

  • The researchers conducted this study using Haemaphysalis longicornis larvae and nymphs. The ticks were fed on a Theileria haneyi-infected horse and then transferred to an incubator for molting.
  • Meanwhile, red blood cells were collected from the infected horse for subsequent infection. Molted nymphs and adults, as well as offsprings of the larvae and nymphs, were placed on healthy horses to examine potential transmission.
  • Another control group horse was inoculated with red blood cells collected from the infected horse.
  • The horses were then monitored for over a month for the presence of Theileria haneyi DNA in their blood and potential clinical signs of infection.

Findings

  • The infected horse used for the ticks’ acquisition developed signs of acute Theileria haneyi infection, while the percentage of parasitized red blood cells varied significantly.
  • All engorged larvae that fed on the infected horse were found positive for Theileria haneyi, though only a subset of nymphs tested positive.
  • However, no evidence of parasite DNA was found in horses that were exposed to the ticks and their offsprings. No clinical signs of infection were observed either.
  • On the other hand, the control group horse inoculated with red blood cells from the infected horse tested positive for Theileria haneyi and developed signs of acute infection.

Conclusion

  • The study concluded that Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks cannot transmit Theileria haneyi to horses, thus ruling out these ticks as a vector for the transmission of this parasite.

Cite This Article

APA
Poh KC, Oyen K, Onzere CK, Kappmeyer LS, Bastos RG. (2025). Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks are unable to transstadially transmit Theileria haneyi to horses. Front Vet Sci, 12, 1572944. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2025.1572944

Publication

Frontiers in veterinary science
ISSN: 2297-1769
NlmUniqueID: 101666658
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 12
Pages: 1572944
PII: 1572944

Researcher Affiliations

Poh, Karen C
  • Animal Disease Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Pullman, WA, United States.
  • Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States.
Oyen, Kennan
  • Animal Disease Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Pullman, WA, United States.
  • Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States.
Onzere, Cynthia K
  • Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States.
Kappmeyer, Lowell S
  • Animal Disease Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Pullman, WA, United States.
Bastos, Reginaldo G
  • Animal Disease Research Unit, USDA-ARS, Pullman, WA, United States.
  • Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 60 references
  1. Knowles DP, Kappmeyer LS, Haney D, Herndon DR, Fry LM, Munro JB. Discovery of a novel species, Theileria haneyi n. sp., infective to equids, highlights exceptional genomic diversity within the genus Theileria: implications for apicomplexan parasite surveillance. Int J Parasitol (2018) 48:679–90.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2018.03.010pubmed: 29885436google scholar: lookup
  2. Bastos RG, Sears KP, Dinkel KD, Kappmeyer L, Ueti MW, Knowles DP. Development of an indirect ELISA to detect equine antibodies to Theileria haneyi. Pathogens (2021) 10:270.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10030270pmc: PMC7997436pubmed: 33673478google scholar: lookup
  3. Tamzali Y. Equine piroplasmosis: an updated review. Equine Vet. Educ. (2013) 25:590–8.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12070google scholar: lookup
  4. Mendoza FJ, Pérez-Écija A, Kappmeyer LS, Suarez CE, Bastos RG. New insights in the diagnosis and treatment of equine piroplasmosis: pitfalls, idiosyncrasies, and myths. Front Vet Sci (2024) 11:1459989.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1459989pmc: PMC11349644pubmed: 39205808google scholar: lookup
  5. Wise LN, Pelzel-McCluskey AM, Mealey RH, Knowles DP. Equine piroplasmosis. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract (2014) 30:677–93.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2014.08.008pubmed: 25300637google scholar: lookup
  6. Knowles D Jr. Equine babesiosis (piroplasmosis): a problem in the international movement of horses. Br Vet J (1996) 152:123–6.
    doi: 10.1016/S0007-1935(96)80066-2pubmed: 8680834google scholar: lookup
  7. Brüning A. Equine piroplasmosis an update on diagnosis, treatment and prevention. Br Vet J (1996) 152:139–51.
    doi: 10.1016/S0007-1935(96)80070-4pubmed: 8680838google scholar: lookup
  8. Grause JF, Ueti MW, Nelson JT, Knowles DP, Kappmeyer LS, Bunn TO. Efficacy of imidocarb dipropionate in eliminating Theileria equi from experimentally infected horses. Vet J (2013) 196:541–6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.10.025pubmed: 23199699google scholar: lookup
  9. Ueti MW, Mealey RH, Kappmeyer LS, White SN, Kumpula-McWhirter N, Pelzel AM. Re-emergence of the apicomplexan Theileria equi in the United States: elimination of persistent infection and transmission risk. PLoS One (2012) 7:e44713.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0044713pmc: PMC3435266pubmed: 22970295google scholar: lookup
  10. Vial HJ, Gorenflot A. Chemotherapy against babesiosis. Vet Parasitol (2006) 138:147–60.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2006.01.048pubmed: 16504402google scholar: lookup
  11. Sears KP, Kappmeyer LS, Wise LN, Silva M, Ueti MW, White S. Infection dynamics of Theileria equi and Theileria haneyi, a newly discovered apicomplexan of the horse. Vet Parasitol (2019) 271:68–75.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2019.06.009pubmed: 31303207google scholar: lookup
  12. Onzere CK, Hulbert M, Sears KP, Williams LBA, Fry LM. Tulathromycin and Diclazuril lack efficacy against Theileria haneyi, but Tulathromycin is not associated with adverse clinical effects in six treated adult horses. Pathogens (2023) 12:453.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens12030453pmc: PMC10055745pubmed: 36986375google scholar: lookup
  13. Onzere CK, Hassan A, Sears K, Kappmeyer LS, Villarino NF, Fry LM. Transient efficacy of buparvaquone against Theileria haneyi in chronically infected horses. Parasit Vectors (2024) 17:337.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-024-06397-0pmc: PMC11318256pubmed: 39129000google scholar: lookup
  14. Sears KP, Knowles DP, Fry LM. Clinical progression of Theileria haneyi in Splenectomized horses reveals decreased virulence compared to Theileria equi. Pathogens (2022) 11:254.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens11020254pmc: PMC8879895pubmed: 35215197google scholar: lookup
  15. Morii K, Sakamoto Y, Watari Y, Iijima H, Doi K, Morishima K. Genetic population structure of the Asian longhorned tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis, in Japan. Exp Appl Acarol (2024) 94:8.
    doi: 10.1007/s10493-024-00971-ypubmed: 39681693google scholar: lookup
  16. Xiang Y, He L, Zhu L, Xiao C, Pan Y, Chen T. Pathogenetic identification in ticks and yaks from Zoige County, China. Front Cell Infect Microbiol (2024) 14:1474519.
    doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1474519pmc: PMC11532068pubmed: 39497923google scholar: lookup
  17. Jang H, Casel MAB, Sg J, Choi JH, Gil J, Rollon R. Seasonal dynamics of Haemaphysalis tick species as SFTSV vectors in South Korea. Microbiol Spectr (2024) 12:e0048924.
    doi: 10.1128/spectrum.00489-24pmc: PMC11537100pubmed: 39345179google scholar: lookup
  18. Lakew BT, Eastwood S, Walkden-Brown SW. Epidemiology and transmission of Theileria orientalis in Australasia. Pathogens (2023) 12:1187.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens12101187pmc: PMC10610506pubmed: 37887703google scholar: lookup
  19. Hammer JF, Emery D, Bogema DR, Jenkins C. Detection of Theileria orientalis genotypes in Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks from southern Australia. Parasit Vectors (2015) 8:229.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-015-0839-9pmc: PMC4404262pubmed: 25889204google scholar: lookup
  20. Emery DL. Approaches to integrated parasite management (IPM) for Theileria orientalis with an emphasis on immunity. Pathogens (2021) 10:1153.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10091153pmc: PMC8467331pubmed: 34578185google scholar: lookup
  21. Onizawa E, Jenkins C. Epidemiology, clinical signs, and risk factors associated with theileriosis in Australian cattle (2006-2022). Pathogens (2024) 13:253.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens13030253pmc: PMC10975341pubmed: 38535595google scholar: lookup
  22. Lawrence K, Gedye K, McFadden A, Pulford D, Heath A, Pomroy W. Review of the New Zealand Theileria orientalis Ikeda type epidemic and epidemiological research since 2012. Pathogens (2021) 10:1346.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10101346pmc: PMC8540055pubmed: 34684296google scholar: lookup
  23. Heath A. A history of the introduction, establishment, dispersal and management of Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann, 1901 (Ixodida: Ixodidae) in New Zealand. NZ J Zool (2020) 47:241–71.
    doi: 10.1080/03014223.2020.1772326google scholar: lookup
  24. Trout Fryxell RT, Chavez-Lindell T, Butler RA, Odoi A. Environmental variables serve as predictors of the invasive Asian longhorned tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann): an approach for targeted tick surveillance. PLoS One (2023) 18:e0292595.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0292595pmc: PMC10621930pubmed: 37917728google scholar: lookup
  25. Beard CB, Occi J, Bonilla DL, Egizi AM, Fonseca DM, Mertins JW. Multistate infestation with the exotic disease-vector tick Haemaphysalis longicornis – United States, august 2017-September 2018. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep (2018) 67:1310–3.
    doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6747a3pmc: PMC6276380pubmed: 30496158google scholar: lookup
  26. Chu CY, Jiang BG, Liu W, Zhao QM, Wu XM, Zhang PH. Presence of pathogenic Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato in ticks and rodents in Zhejiang, south-East China. J Med Microbiol (2008) 57:980–5.
    doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.47663-0pubmed: 18628499google scholar: lookup
  27. Dinkel KD, Herndon DR, Noh SM, Lahmers KK, Todd SM, Ueti MW. A U.S. isolate of Theileria orientalis, Ikeda genotype, is transmitted to cattle by the invasive Asian longhorned tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis. Parasit Vectors (2021) 14:157.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-021-04659-9pmc: PMC7962341pubmed: 33726815google scholar: lookup
  28. Luo LM, Zhao L, Wen HL, Zhang ZT, Liu JW, Fang LZ. Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks as reservoir and vector of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus in China. Emerg Infect Dis (2015) 21:1770–6.
    doi: 10.3201/eid2110.150126pmc: PMC4593435pubmed: 26402039google scholar: lookup
  29. Heath A. Biology, ecology and distribution of the tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann (Acari: Ixodidae) in New Zealand. N Z Vet J (2016) 64:10–20.
    doi: 10.1080/00480169.2015.1035769pubmed: 25849758google scholar: lookup
  30. Zhuang L, Du J, Cui XM, Li H, Tang F, Zhang PH. Identification of tick-borne pathogen diversity by metagenomic analysis in Haemaphysalis longicornis from Xinyang, China. Infect Dis Poverty (2018) 7:45.
    doi: 10.1186/s40249-018-0417-4pmc: PMC5937033pubmed: 29730989google scholar: lookup
  31. Eisen L. Vector competence studies with hard ticks and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato spirochetes: a review. Ticks Tick Borne Dis (2020) 11:101359.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2019.101359pmc: PMC7127979pubmed: 32067949google scholar: lookup
  32. Zheng W, Umemiya-Shirafuji R, Chen S, Okado K, Adjou Moumouni PF, Suzuki H. Identification of Haemaphysalis longicornis genes differentially expressed in response to Babesia microti infection. Pathogens (2020) 9:378.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens9050378pmc: PMC7281432pubmed: 32423088google scholar: lookup
  33. Oakes VJ, Yabsley MJ, Schwartz D, LeRoith T, Bissett C, Broaddus C. Theileria orientalis Ikeda genotype in cattle, Virginia, USA. Emerg Infect Dis (2019) 25:1653–9.
    doi: 10.3201/eid2509.190088pmc: PMC6711211pubmed: 31237835google scholar: lookup
  34. Myers SA, Scimeca RC. First report of Haemaphysalis longicornis (Neumann) in Oklahoma, USA. Pathogens (2024) 13:861.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens13100861pmc: PMC11510514pubmed: 39452732google scholar: lookup
  35. Adams DR, Barbarin AM, Reiskind MH. New report of Haemaphysalis longicornis (Ixodida: Ixodidae) in Mecklenburg County, Virginia from field collections. J Med Entomol (2024) 61:1261–5.
    doi: 10.1093/jme/tjae090pubmed: 39021151google scholar: lookup
  36. Fausett E, Kirstein OD, Bellman S, Long A, Roeske I, Cheng C. Surveillance and detection of Haemaphysalis longicornis (Acari: Ixodidae) in protected areas from Georgia, USA. J Med Entomol (2024) 61:1071–6.
    doi: 10.1093/jme/tjae051pubmed: 38691675google scholar: lookup
  37. Eleftheriou A, Zeiger B, Jennings J, Pesapane R. Phenology and habitat associations of the invasive Asian longhorned tick from Ohio, USA. Med Vet Entomol (2024) 38:314–24.
    doi: 10.1111/mve.12719pubmed: 38567802google scholar: lookup
  38. Butler RA, Trout Fryxell RT. Management of Haemaphysalis longicornis (Acari: Ixodidae) on a cow-calf farm in East Tennessee, USA. J Med Entomol (2023) 60:1374–9.
    doi: 10.1093/jme/tjad121pubmed: 37738311google scholar: lookup
  39. Seo HJ, Truong AT, Kim KH, Lim JY, Min S, Kim HC. Molecular detection and phylogenetic analysis of tick-borne pathogens in ticks collected from horses in the Republic of Korea. Pathogens (2021) 10:1069.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10091069pmc: PMC8472514pubmed: 34578102google scholar: lookup
  40. Egizi A, Bulaga-Seraphin L, Alt E, Bajwa WI, Bernick J, Bickerton M. First glimpse into the origin and spread of the Asian longhorned tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis, in the United States. Zoonoses Public Health (2020) 67:637–50.
    doi: 10.1111/zph.12743pubmed: 32638553google scholar: lookup
  41. Poh KC, Aguilar M, Capelli-Peixoto J, Davis SK, Ueti MW. Haemaphysalis longicornis (Acari: Ixodidae) does not transmit Babesia bovis, a causative agent of cattle fever. Ticks Tick Borne Dis (2024) 15:102374.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2024.102374pubmed: 38971081google scholar: lookup
  42. Onzere CK, Fry LM, Bishop RP, Da Silva M, Madsen-Bouterse SA, Bastos RG. Theileria equi RAP-1a and RAP-1b proteins contain immunoreactive epitopes and are suitable candidates for vaccine and diagnostics development. Int J Parasitol (2022) 52:385–97.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2022.01.004pubmed: 35318949google scholar: lookup
  43. Rochlin I, Benach JL, Furie MB, Thanassi DG, Kim HK. Rapid invasion and expansion of the Asian longhorned tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis) into a new area on Long Island, New York, USA. Ticks Tick Borne Dis (2023) 14:102088.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2022.102088pmc: PMC9898124pubmed: 36436461google scholar: lookup
  44. Dehhaghi M, Kazemi Shariat Panahi H, Holmes EC, Hudson BJ, Schloeffel R, Guillemin GJ. Human tick-borne diseases in Australia. Front Cell Infect Microbiol (2019) 9:3.
    doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2019.00003pmc: PMC6360175pubmed: 30746341google scholar: lookup
  45. Namjoshi P, Lubembe DM, Sultana H, Neelakanta G. Antibody-blocking of a tick transporter impairs Anaplasma phagocytophilum colonization in Haemaphysalis longicornis ticks. Sci Rep (2024) 14:9003.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-59315-wpmc: PMC11026487pubmed: 38637614google scholar: lookup
  46. Herb H, González J, Ferreira FC, Fonseca DM. Multiple piroplasm parasites (Apicomplexa: Piroplasmida) in northeastern populations of the invasive Asian longhorned tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann (Ixodida: Ixodidae), in the United States. Parasitology (2023) 150:1063–9.
    doi: 10.1017/S0031182023000914pmc: PMC10801381pubmed: 37791496google scholar: lookup
  47. Butler RA, Muller LI, Grove D, Fryxell RTT. Ecological relationships of Haemaphysalis longicornis Neumann with other tick species on wildlife hosts at cow-calf farms implementing integrated pest management in eastern Tennessee. Parasitology (2024) 151:1001–11.
    doi: 10.1017/S0031182024001380pmc: PMC11770535pubmed: 39540321google scholar: lookup
  48. Nwanade CF, Wang M, Li S, Yu Z, Liu J. The current strategies and underlying mechanisms in the control of the vector tick, Haemaphysalis longicornis: implications for future integrated management. Ticks Tick Borne Dis (2022) 13:101905.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2022.101905pubmed: 35074724google scholar: lookup
  49. Thompson AT, White S, Shaw D, Egizi A, Lahmers K, Ruder MG. Theileria orientalis Ikeda in host-seeking Haemaphysalis longicornis in Virginia, U.S.A.. Ticks Tick Borne Diseases (2020) 11:101450.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2020.101450pubmed: 32723633google scholar: lookup
  50. Scoles GA, Hutcheson HJ, Schlater JL, Hennager SG, Pelzel AM, Knowles DP. Equine piroplasmosis associated with Amblyomma cajennense ticks, Texas, USA. Emerg Infect Dis (2011) 17:1903–5.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1710.101182pmc: PMC3310643pubmed: 22000367google scholar: lookup
  51. Goff WL, Bastos RG, Brown WC, Johnson WC, Schneider DA. The bovine spleen: interactions among splenic cell populations in the innate immunologic control of hemoparasitic infections. Vet Immunol Immunopathol (2010) 138:1–14.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2010.07.006pubmed: 20692048google scholar: lookup
  52. Suarez CE, Alzan HF, Silva MG, Rathinasamy V, Poole WA, Cooke BM. Unravelling the cellular and molecular pathogenesis of bovine babesiosis: is the sky the limit?. Int J Parasitol (2019) 49:183–97.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2018.11.002pmc: PMC6988112pubmed: 30690089google scholar: lookup
  53. Sears K, Knowles D, Dinkel K, Mshelia PW, Onzere C, Silva M. Imidocarb dipropionate lacks efficacy against Theileria haneyi and fails to consistently clear Theileria equi in horses co-infected with T. Haneyi. Pathogens (2020) 9:1035.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens9121035pmc: PMC7764667pubmed: 33321715google scholar: lookup
  54. Porcelli S, Deshuillers PL, Moutailler S, Lagrée AC. Meta-analysis of tick-borne and other pathogens: co-infection or co-detection? That is the question. Curr Res Parasitol Vector Borne Dis (2024) 6:100219.
    doi: 10.1016/j.crpvbd.2024.100219pmc: PMC11525461pubmed: 39483631google scholar: lookup
  55. Phillips P, Sundaram M. From invasion to outbreak: tick introductions and disease. Trends Parasitol (2024) 41:24–7.
    doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2024.11.005pubmed: 39638656google scholar: lookup
  56. Jalovecka M, Sojka D, Ascencio M, Schnittger L. Babesia life cycle – when phylogeny meets biology. Trends Parasitol (2019) 35:356–68.
    doi: 10.1016/j.pt.2019.01.007pubmed: 30733093google scholar: lookup
  57. Jalovecka M, Hajdusek O, Sojka D, Kopacek P, Malandrin L. The complexity of piroplasms life cycles. Front Cell Infect Microbiol (2018) 8:248.
    doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2018.00248pmc: PMC6065256pubmed: 30083518google scholar: lookup
  58. Ueti MW, Palmer GH, Kappmeyer LS, Statdfield M, Scoles GA, Knowles DP. Ability of the vector tick Boophilus microplus to acquire and transmit Babesia equi following feeding on chronically infected horses with low-level parasitemia. J Clin Microbiol (2005) 43:3755–9.
    doi: 10.1128/jcm.43.8.3755-3759.2005pmc: PMC1233951pubmed: 16081906google scholar: lookup
  59. Ueti MW, Palmer GH, Kappmeyer LS, Scoles GA, Knowles DP. Expression of equi merozoite antigen 2 during development of Babesia equi in the midgut and salivary gland of the vector tick Boophilus microplus. J Clin Microbiol (2003) 41:5803–9.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.41.12.5803-5809.2003pmc: PMC308990pubmed: 14662988google scholar: lookup
  60. Pavia CS, Saggio G, Plummer MM. The major epidemiologic, microbiologic, immunologic, and clinical aspects of Lyme disease that form the basis for a newly developed vaccine that may become available soon for human use. Front Immunol (2023) 14:1326623.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1326623pmc: PMC10899802pubmed: 38420513google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,357 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.