FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Front Behav Neurosci / Horses’ (Equus caballus) Ability to Solve Visible but ...
Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience2021; 15; 792035; doi: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.792035

Horses’ (Equus caballus) Ability to Solve Visible but Not Invisible Displacement Tasks Is Associated With Frustration Behavior and Heart Rate.

Abstract: Many frameworks have assessed the ultimate and ontogenetic underpinnings in the development of object permanence, but less is known about whether individual characteristics, such as sex or training level, as well as proximate factors, such as arousal or emotional state, affect performance in these tasks. The current study investigated horses' performance in visible and invisible displacement tasks and assessed whether specific ontogenetic, behavioral, and physiological factors were associated with performance. The study included 39 Icelandic horses aged 2-25 years, of varying training levels. The horses were exposed to three tasks: (a) a choice test (n = 37), (b) a visible displacement task (n = 35), and (c) an invisible displacement task (n = 31). 27 horses in the choice test, and 8 horses in the visible displacement task, performed significantly better than expected by chance, while none did so in the invisible displacement task. This was also reflected in their group performance, where horses performed above chance level in the choice task and the visible displacement task only. In the invisible displacement task, the group performed significantly worse than expected by chance indicating that horses persistently chose the side where they had last seen the target. None of the individual characteristics included in the study had an effect on performance. Unsuccessful horses had higher heart rate levels, and expressed more behavior indicative of frustration, likely because of their inability to solve the task. The increased frustration/arousal could lead to a negative feedback loop, which might hamper performance in subsequent trials. Care should thus be taken in future experimental designs to closely monitor the arousal level of the tested individuals in order to safeguard comparability.
Copyright © 2021 Rørvang, Ničová, Sassner and Nawroth.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2021-12-08 PubMed ID: 34955782PubMed Central: PMC8693624DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.792035Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article investigates how a horse’s emotional state and characteristics affect its ability to perform in tasks requiring understanding of object permanence. The study reveals that horses can solve visible, but not invisible, displacement tasks, and this inability is associated with frustration behaviour and increased heart rate.

Research Objectives

  • The primary objective of this research was to study how horses perform in visible and invisible displacement tasks. This implied exploring their understanding of object permanence, which is the concept that objects continue to exist even when they are not perceivable.
  • Another aim was to ascertain whether individual characteristics, such as sex or training level, had any influence on their task performance.
  • The study also sought to determine if proximate factors, such as arousal or emotional state, impacted the horses’ performance in these tasks.

Study Design

  • The researchers included 39 Icelandic horses aged from 2 to 25 years, with varying training levels in the study.
  • The horses underwent three different tasks: a choice test, a visible displacement task, and an invisible displacement task.
  • In the visible displacement task, the horses were expected to remember the location of an object even after it got visually displaced. In the invisible displacement task, the object was hidden, and horses were left to guess its location.

Results

  • The results showed that several horses performed significantly better than expected in the choice test and the visible displacement task but none in the invisible displacement task.
  • The results suggested persistent behaviour in horses where they chose the side they last saw the target during the invisible displacement task, indicating a lack of understanding of object permanence in these contexts.
  • Individual characteristics, such as sex or training level, had no effect on performance.
  • However, horses that couldn’t solve the tasks had higher heart rates and exhibited increased frustration behaviour.
  • The researchers suggested that high frustration or arousal could lead to a negative feedback loop, which might affect performance in subsequent trials.

Implications of the Study

  • This study underscores the importance of monitoring emotional state and arousal levels in future experimental designs involving animals to ensure comparability.
  • Understanding the limitations of horses in comprehending invisible displacements can inform better training techniques and protocols in the future.

Cite This Article

APA
Rørvang MV, Ničová K, Sassner H, Nawroth C. (2021). Horses’ (Equus caballus) Ability to Solve Visible but Not Invisible Displacement Tasks Is Associated With Frustration Behavior and Heart Rate. Front Behav Neurosci, 15, 792035. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2021.792035

Publication

Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience
ISSN: 1662-5153
NlmUniqueID: 101477952
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 15
Pages: 792035

Researcher Affiliations

Rørvang, Maria Vilain
  • Department of Biosystems and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Sweden.
Ničová, Klára
  • Department of Ethology, Institute of Animal Science, Prague, Czechia.
  • Department of Ethology and Companion Animal Science, Czech University of Life Sciences in Prague, Prague, Czechia.
Sassner, Hanna
  • Department of Biosystems and Technology, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Sweden.
Nawroth, Christian
  • Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Institute of Behavioural Physiology, Dummerstorf, Germany.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 52 references
  1. Baragli P, Vitale V, Paoletti E, Mengoli M, Sighieri C. Encoding the object position for assessment of short term spatial memory in horses (Equus caballus). Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 24 284–291.
    doi: 10.5070/P4243020266google scholar: lookup
  2. Bates D, Maechler M, Bolker B. lme4: Linear Mixed-effects Models Using S4 Classes. R Packag version 0999999-2 999999.
  3. Christensen J W, Ahrendt L P, Lintrup R, Gaillard C, Palme R, Malmkvist J. Does learning performance in horses relate to fearfulness, baseline stress hormone, and social rank?. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 140 44–52.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2012.05.003google scholar: lookup
  4. Christensen J W, Ahrendt L P, Malmkvist J, Nicol C. Exploratory behaviour towards novel objects is associated with enhanced learning in young horses. Sci. Rep. 11:1428.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-80833-wpmc: PMC7809405pubmed: 33446827google scholar: lookup
  5. Christensen J W, Munk R, Hawson L, Palme R, Larsen T, Egenvall A. Rider effects on horses’ conflict behaviour, rein tension, physiological measures and rideability scores. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 234:105184.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2020.105184google scholar: lookup
  6. Dai F, Costa A D, Bonfanti L, Caucci C, Martino G, Di. Positive reinforcement-based training for self-loading of meat horses reduces loading time and stress-related behavior. Front. Vet. Sci. 6:350.
    doi: 10.3389/FVETS.2019.00350pmc: PMC6802606pubmed: 31681807google scholar: lookup
  7. De Blois S T, Novak M A, Bond M. Object permanence in orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). J. Comp. Psychol. 112 137–152.
    doi: 10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.137pubmed: 9642783google scholar: lookup
  8. Doré F Y, Dumas C. Psychology of animal cognition: piagetian studies. Psychol. Bull. 102 219–233.
    doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.102.2.219google scholar: lookup
  9. Ellis A D, Redgate S, Zinchenko S, Owen H, Barfoot C, Harris P. The effect of presenting forage in multi-layered haynets and at multiple sites on night time budgets of stabled horses. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 171 108–116.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2015.08.012google scholar: lookup
  10. Fiset S, Plourde V. Object permanence in domestic dogs (canis lupus familiaris) and gray wolves (canis lupus). J. Comp. Psychol. 127 115–127.
    doi: 10.1037/A0030595pubmed: 23106804google scholar: lookup
  11. Górecka-Bruzda A, Kosińska I, Jaworski Z, Jezierski T, Murphy J. Conflict behavior in elite show jumping and dressage horses. J. Vet. Behav. Clin. Appl. Res. 10 137–146.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2014.10.004google scholar: lookup
  12. Hall C. The impact of visual perception on equine learning. Behav. Processes 76 29–33.
    doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2006.09.017pubmed: 17408877google scholar: lookup
  13. Hartig F. DHARMa: Residual Diagnostics for Hierarchical (Multi-Level/Mixed) Regression Models. .
  14. Hughes A. The topography of vision in mammals of contrasting life style: comparative optics and retinal organization. The Visual System in Vertebrates. Handbook of Sensory Physiology 613–756.
  15. Kilkenny C, Browne W J, Cuthill I C, Emerson M, Altman D G. The ARRIVE guidelines. ARRIVE Guidel Anim. Res. Report Vivo Exp. 8:e1000412.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000412pmc: PMC2893951pubmed: 20613859google scholar: lookup
  16. Kjellberg L, Morgan K. Introduction to automatic forage stations and measurement of forage intake rate in an active open barn for horses. Animal 15:100152.
    doi: 10.1016/J.ANIMAL.2020.100152pubmed: 33573955google scholar: lookup
  17. Krueger K, Farmer K, Heinze J. The effects of age, rank and neophobia on social learning in horses. Anim. Cogn. 17 645–655.
    doi: 10.1007/s10071-013-0696-xpubmed: 24170136google scholar: lookup
  18. Lansade L, Simon F. Horses’ learning performances are under the influence of several temperamental dimensions. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 125 30–37.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2010.02.010google scholar: lookup
  19. McLean A N. Short-term spatial memory in the domestic horse. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 85 93–105.
    doi: 10.1016/J.APPLANIM.2003.09.009google scholar: lookup
  20. Mogil J S, Ritchie J, Smith S B, Strasburg K, Kaplan L, Wallace M R. Melanocortin-1 receptor gene variants affect pain and μ-opioid analgesia in mice and humans. J. Med. Genet. 42 583–587.
    doi: 10.1136/jmg.2004.027698pmc: PMC1736101pubmed: 15994880google scholar: lookup
  21. Müller C A, Mayer C, Dörrenberg S, Huber L, Range F. Female but not male dogs respond to a size constancy violation. Biol. Lett. 7 689–691.
    doi: 10.1098/RSBL.2011.0287pmc: PMC3169075pubmed: 21525048google scholar: lookup
  22. Murphy J, Waldmann T, Arkins S. Sex differences in equine learning skills and visuo-spatial ability. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 87 119–130.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2003.12.002google scholar: lookup
  23. Nawroth C, Ebersbach M, Von Borell E. A note on pigs’ knowledge of hidden objects open access. Arch. Tierzucht 56 861–872.
    doi: 10.7482/0003-9438-56-086google scholar: lookup
  24. Nawroth C, Von Borell E, Langbein J. Exclusion performance in dwarf goats (Capra aegagrus hircus) and sheep (Ovis orientalis aries). PLoS One 9:e93534.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0093534pmc: PMC3973590pubmed: 24695781google scholar: lookup
  25. Nawroth C, von Borell E, Langbein J. Object permanence in the dwarf goat (Capra aegagrus hircus): perseveration errors and the tracking of complex movements of hidden objects. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 167 20–26.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2015.03.010google scholar: lookup
  26. Neiworth J J, Steinmark E, Basile B M, Wonders R, Steely F, DeHart C. A test of object permanence in a new-world monkey species, cotton top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus). Anim. Cogn. 6 27–37.
    doi: 10.1007/s10071-003-0162-2pubmed: 12658533google scholar: lookup
  27. Ödberg F O. An Interpretation of Pawing by the Horse (Equus caballus Linnaeus), Displacement Activity and Original Functions. .
  28. Pepperberg I M, Funk M S. Object permanence in four species of psittacine birds: an African Grey parrot (Psittacus erithacus), an Illiger mini macaw (Ara maracana), a parakeet (Melopsittacus undulatus), and a cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus). Anim. Learn. Behav. 181 97–108.
    doi: 10.3758/BF03205244google scholar: lookup
  29. Piaget J. The Origins of Intelligence in Children, 2nd Edn. New York, NY: University of Michigan.
  30. Piaget J. The Construction of Reality in the Child. New York, NY: International University Press.
  31. Pinheiro J, Bates D, DebRoy S, Sarkar D, R Core Team. nlme: Linear and Nonlinear Mixed Effects Models. Available online at: https://cran.r-project.org/package=nlme.
  32. Pollok B, Gtinttirktin O. Development of Object permanence in food-storing magpies (Pica pica). J. Comp. Psycol. 114 148–157.
    doi: 10.1037/0735-7036.114.2.148pubmed: 10890586google scholar: lookup
  33. Proops L, McComb K, Reby D. Cross-modal individual recognition in domestic horses (Equus caballus). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U S A. 106 947–951.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.0809127105pmc: PMC2630083pubmed: 19075246google scholar: lookup
  34. R Core Team. The R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Vienna: R Core Team.
  35. Ringhofer M, Yamamoto S. Domestic horses send signals to humans when they face with an unsolvable task. Anim. Cogn. 20 397–405.
    doi: 10.1007/s10071-016-1056-4pubmed: 27885519google scholar: lookup
  36. Rooijakkers E F, Kaminski J, Call J. Comparing dogs and great apes in their ability to visually track object transpositions. Anim. Cogn. 12 789–796.
    doi: 10.1007/s10071-009-0238-8pmc: PMC2762533pubmed: 19471978google scholar: lookup
  37. Rørvang M V, Nielsen B L, McLean A N. Sensory abilities of horses and their importance for equitation science. Front. Vet. Sci. 7:633.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00633pmc: PMC7509108pubmed: 33033724google scholar: lookup
  38. Rørvang M V, Nielsen T B, Christensen J W. Horses failed to learn from humans by observation. Animals 10:221.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10020221pmc: PMC7070367pubmed: 32013218google scholar: lookup
  39. Schubiger M N, Wüstholz F L, Wunder A, Burkart J M. High emotional reactivity toward an experimenter affects participation, but not performance, in cognitive tests with common marmosets (Callithrix jacchus). Anim. Cogn. 18 701–712.
    doi: 10.1007/S10071-015-0837-5/FIGURES/4pubmed: 25636914google scholar: lookup
  40. Sherwin C M, Christiansen S B, Duncan I J H, Erhard H W, Lay D C, Mench J A. Guidelines for the ethical use of animals in applied animal behaviour research. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 81, 291–305.
    doi: 10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00288-5google scholar: lookup
  41. Timney B, Macuda T. Vision and hearing in horses. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 218 1567–1574.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2001.218.1567pubmed: 11393366google scholar: lookup
  42. Tomasello M, Call J. Primate Cognition. Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press.
  43. Triana E, Pasnak R. Object permanence in cats and dogs. Anim. Learn. Behav. 9 135–139.
    doi: 10.3758/BF03212035google scholar: lookup
  44. Trösch M, Flamand A, Chasles M, Nowak R, Calandreau L, Lansade L. Horses solve visible but not invisible displacement tasks in an object permanence paradigm. Front. Psychol. 11:562989.
    doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.562989pmc: PMC7552213pubmed: 33117229google scholar: lookup
  45. Uller C, Lewis J. Horses (Equus caballus) select the greater of two quantities in small numerical contrasts. Anim. Cogn. 12 733–738.
    doi: 10.1007/s10071-009-0225-0pubmed: 19387706google scholar: lookup
  46. Valenchon M, Lévy F, Prunier A, Moussu C, Calandreau L, Lansade L. Stress modulates instrumental learning performances in horses (Equus caballus) in interaction with temperament. PLoS One 8:e62324.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0062324pmc: PMC3633893pubmed: 23626801google scholar: lookup
  47. von Borell E, Langbein J, Després G, Hansen S, Leterrier C, Marchant-Forde J. Heart rate variability as a measure of autonomic regulation of cardiac activity for assessing stress and welfare in farm animals - a review. Physiol. Behav. 92 293–316.
    doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.01.007pubmed: 17320122google scholar: lookup
  48. Wolff A, Hausberger M. Learning and memorisation of two different tasks in horses: the effects of age, sex and sire. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 46 137–143.
    doi: 10.1016/0168-1591(95)00659-1google scholar: lookup
  49. Yerkes R M, Dodson J D. The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit-formation. J. Comp. Neurol. Psychol. 18 459–482.
    doi: 10.1002/cne.920180503google scholar: lookup
  50. Zentall T R, Pattison K F. Now you see it, now you Don’t. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 25 357–362.
    doi: 10.1177/0963721416664861google scholar: lookup
  51. Zentall T R, Raley O L. Object permanence in the pigeon (Columba livia): insertion of a delay prior to choice facilitates visible- and invisible-displacement accuracy. J. Comp. Psychol. 133 132–139.
    doi: 10.1037/COM0000134pubmed: 30382709google scholar: lookup
  52. Zucca P, Milos N, Vallortigara G. Piagetian object permanence and its development in Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius). Anim. Cogn. 102 243–258.
    doi: 10.1007/S10071-006-0063-2pubmed: 17242935google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 3 times.
  1. Ricci-Bonot C, Brosche K, Baragli P, Nicol C. A systematic review on the effect of individual characteristics and management practices on equine cognition. Anim Cogn 2025 Nov 26;28(1):96.
    doi: 10.1007/s10071-025-02016-2pubmed: 41296132google scholar: lookup
  2. Montalcini CM, Driver CC, Mendl MT. Relevance of state-behaviour feedbacks for animal welfare. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2025 Aug;100(4):1615-1634.
    doi: 10.1111/brv.70016pubmed: 40125776google scholar: lookup
  3. Hall C, Kay R. Living the good life? A systematic review of behavioural signs of affective state in the domestic horse (Equus caballus) and factors relating to quality of life. Part 2: Horse-human interactions. Anim Welf 2024;33:e41.
    doi: 10.1017/awf.2024.41pubmed: 39469043google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.