FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Transbound Emerg Dis / Monitoring Pathogens in Free-Living Large Herbivores in a Na...
Transboundary and emerging diseases2025; 2025; 6948049; doi: 10.1155/tbed/6948049

Monitoring Pathogens in Free-Living Large Herbivores in a Nature Reserve in the Netherlands.

Abstract: Monitoring and surveillance of pathogens are crucial for safeguarding animal and public health. While passive surveillance is more common for wild and free-living animals, active monitoring improves the detection and characterisation of specific pathogens relevant to animal and public health. In the (OVP) nature reserve in the Netherlands, an active monitoring system for Heck cattle (), Konik horses () and red deer () has been in place since 1997. This study utilised the data generated from the monitoring system to estimate pathogen prevalence and to evaluate the ongoing monitoring efforts. Yearly prevalences were calculated for each observed pathogen, and probability of freedom from infection was assessed for pathogens that were not detected. In cattle, the highest antibody prevalences (>35%-50%) were observed for Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1), Bluetongue virus (BTV), Schmallenberg virus (SBV) and , whereas lower (<25%) prevalences were detected for Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV), , subsp. (), spp. and . Dublin. Similar pathogens were observed in red deer and cattle, but prevalences were generally lower in red deer. In horses, Equine herpesvirus 1 and 4 (EHV-1 and 4), spp., . Dublin and . Typhimurium were detected. Bovine leukaemia virus (BLV), , and serovar Hardjo were not detected in cattle and red deer, nor were Equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV), Equine influenza virus (EIV) and West Nile virus (WNV) observed in horses. Most of the detected pathogens are endemic in the Netherlands, while non-detected pathogens often have an official disease-free status. This study provides valuable insights into pathogen presence in free-living large herbivores at the OVP nature reserve. The current monitoring system is highly valuable and its effectiveness can be further enhanced through improvements, such as increased sampling efforts and pathogen prioritisation. This knowledge could guide the implementation of similar monitoring strategies in nature reserves across Europe.
Copyright © 2025 Inês Marcelino et al. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-08-08 PubMed ID: 40822449PubMed Central: PMC12356683DOI: 10.1155/tbed/6948049Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This study analyzed long-term active monitoring data of pathogens in free-living large herbivores—Heck cattle, Konik horses, and red deer—at a nature reserve in the Netherlands to estimate pathogen prevalence and assess the effectiveness of surveillance efforts for animal and public health.

Background and Objectives

  • Pathogen monitoring in wildlife is essential to protect both animal and public health by early detection and characterisation of infectious agents.
  • Wild and free-living animals are commonly monitored through passive surveillance, which relies on reporting of clinical cases or dead animals.
  • Active monitoring, which involves systematic sampling of apparently healthy animals, leads to better detection and understanding of pathogen prevalence.
  • The study focused on a nature reserve in the Netherlands, known as Oostvaardersplassen (OVP), where an active monitoring system has been in place since 1997 for three large herbivore species: Heck cattle, Konik horses, and red deer.
  • A key objective was to use accumulated surveillance data to estimate yearly prevalence of different pathogens in these animal populations and to evaluate how well the ongoing monitoring system performs.

Methods

  • The dataset originated from systematic, yearly sampling of the three species within the OVP reserve.
  • Pathogen presence was determined primarily by detection of specific antibodies and possibly other diagnostic methods.
  • Yearly prevalences—the proportion of animals testing positive for each pathogen—were calculated for each species separately.
  • For pathogens that were not detected during surveillance, the probability of freedom from infection (i.e., confidence that the population is really free from that pathogen) was statistically estimated.

Key Findings: Pathogen Prevalence in Heck Cattle

  • High antibody prevalence (>35%-50%) observed for:
    • Bovine herpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1)
    • Bluetongue virus (BTV)
    • Schmallenberg virus (SBV)
    • Brucella spp.
  • Lower prevalence (<25%) detected for:
    • Bovine viral diarrhoea virus (BVDV)
    • Coxiella burnetii (Q-fever agent)
    • Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP)
    • Leptospira spp.
    • Salmonella enterica serovar Dublin

Pathogens in Red Deer

  • Many of the same pathogens identified in cattle were also found in red deer, indicating possible cross-species exposure or shared environmental sources.
  • However, prevalence rates in red deer were generally lower compared to cattle.

Pathogens in Konik Horses

  • Detected pathogens included:
    • Equine herpesvirus types 1 and 4 (EHV-1 and EHV-4)
    • Leptospira spp.
    • Salmonella enterica serovar Dublin
    • Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium

Pathogens Not Detected in the Study Populations

  • In cattle and red deer:
    • Bovine leukaemia virus (BLV)
    • Brucella abortus
    • Leptospira serovar Hardjo
  • In horses:
    • Equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV)
    • Equine influenza virus (EIV)
    • West Nile virus (WNV)

Interpretation and Significance

  • Most detected pathogens are known to be endemic in the Netherlands, indicating that free-living herbivores in the reserve are reservoirs or hosts for these infections.
  • Non-detected pathogens commonly have an official disease-free status in the region, supporting the accuracy of the monitoring system’s negative findings.
  • Active monitoring in this controlled natural environment provides valuable epidemiological information on pathogen circulation among wildlife species.

Recommendations and Future Directions

  • The current active monitoring system is highly valuable for ongoing pathogen surveillance and risk assessment in free-living herbivores.
  • Enhancements suggested include:
    • Increasing sampling efforts (e.g., higher numbers, more frequent sampling)
    • Prioritizing pathogens for targeted surveillance based on public or animal health relevance
  • Insights from this study can serve as a model to implement or improve similar active pathogen monitoring programs in other European nature reserves.
  • Such monitoring supports early detection of emerging diseases and aids in wildlife management and biosecurity planning.

Cite This Article

APA
Marcelino I, Keizer J, Monti G, Cornelissen P, Santman-Berends I, Lam JH, van der Poel WHM. (2025). Monitoring Pathogens in Free-Living Large Herbivores in a Nature Reserve in the Netherlands. Transbound Emerg Dis, 2025, 6948049. https://doi.org/10.1155/tbed/6948049

Publication

Transboundary and emerging diseases
ISSN: 1865-1682
NlmUniqueID: 101319538
Country: Germany
Language: English
Volume: 2025
Pages: 6948049
PII: 6948049

Researcher Affiliations

Marcelino, Inês
  • Infectious Disease Epidemiology (IDE), Wageningen University and Research (WUR), Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Keizer, Jasmin
  • Infectious Disease Epidemiology (IDE), Wageningen University and Research (WUR), Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Monti, Gustavo
  • Infectious Disease Epidemiology (IDE), Wageningen University and Research (WUR), Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Cornelissen, Perry
  • Department Nature and Society, Staatsbosbeheer, Lelystad, the Netherlands.
  • Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam (UvA), Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
Santman-Berends, Inge
  • Department of Research and Development, Royal GD, Deventer, the Netherlands.
Lam, Jasper Het
  • Ruminant Health Department, Royal GD, Deventer, the Netherlands.
van der Poel, Wim H M
  • Infectious Disease Epidemiology (IDE), Wageningen University and Research (WUR), Wageningen, the Netherlands.
  • Virology and Molecular Biology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research (WBVR), Lelystad, the Netherlands.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Netherlands / epidemiology
  • Horses
  • Deer
  • Cattle
  • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
  • Horse Diseases / microbiology
  • Horse Diseases / parasitology
  • Horse Diseases / virology
  • Cattle Diseases / epidemiology
  • Cattle Diseases / microbiology
  • Cattle Diseases / parasitology
  • Cattle Diseases / virology
  • Virus Diseases / veterinary
  • Virus Diseases / epidemiology
  • Prevalence
  • Bacterial Infections / veterinary
  • Bacterial Infections / epidemiology
  • Bacterial Infections / microbiology
  • Conservation of Natural Resources

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

This article includes 89 references
  1. Hoinville LJ, Alban L, Drewe JA. Proposed Terms and Concepts for Describing and Evaluating Animal-Health Surveillance Systems. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 2013;112(1-2):1–12.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2013.06.006pubmed: 23906392google scholar: lookup
  2. Thrusfield MV, Christley R. Veterinary Epidemiology. Fourth ed. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell; 2018.
    doi: 10.1002/9781118280249google scholar: lookup
  3. . Regulation (EU) 2016/429 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 2016 on Transmissible Animal Diseases and Amending and Repealing Certain Acts in the Area of Animal Health (Animal Health Law). .
  4. . Commission Implementing Regulation (EU) 2018/1882 of 3 December 2018 on the Application of Certain Disease Prevention and Control Rules to Categories of Listed Diseases and Establishing a List of Species and Groups of Species Posing a Considerable Risk for the Spread of Those Listed Diseases. .
  5. . World Organisation For Animal Health (WOAH) Terrestrial Animal Health Code, Section 1. Animal Disease Diagnosis, Surveillance and Notification, Chapter 1.4. Animal health surveillance. 2024.
  6. Santman-Berends IMGA, Brouwer-Middelesch H, Van Wuijckhuise L, de Bont-Smolenaars AJG, Van Schaik G. Surveillance of Cattle Health in the Netherlands: Monitoring Trends and Developments Using Routinely Collected Cattle Census Data. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 2016;134:103–112.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2016.10.002pubmed: 27836031google scholar: lookup
  7. Dijkstra E, Vellema P, Peterson K. Monitoring and Surveillance of Small Ruminant Health in the Netherlands. Pathogens 2022;11(6):p. 635.
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens11060635pmc: PMC9230677pubmed: 35745489google scholar: lookup
  8. Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA. Global Trends in Emerging Infectious Diseases. Nature 2008;451(7181):990–993.
    doi: 10.1038/nature06536pmc: PMC5960580pubmed: 18288193google scholar: lookup
  9. Wiethoelter AK, Beltrán-Alcrudo D, Kock R, Mor SM. Global Trends in Infectious Diseases at the Wildlife-Livestock Interface. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2015;112(31):9662–9667.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.1422741112pmc: PMC4534210pubmed: 26195733google scholar: lookup
  10. Gortázar C, Ruiz-Fons JF, Höfle U. Infections Shared With Wildlife: An Updated Perspective. European Journal of Wildlife Research 2016;62:511–525.
  11. Adisasmito WB, Almuhairi S, Behravesh CB. One Health: A New Definition for a Sustainable and Healthy Future. PLOS Pathogens 2022;18(6).
    doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010537pmc: PMC9223325pubmed: 35737670google scholar: lookup
  12. Gordon IJ, Hester AJ, Festa-Bianchet M. The Management of Wild Large Herbivores to Meet Economic, Conservation and Environmental Objectives. Journal of Applied Ecology 2004;41(6):1021–1031.
    doi: 10.1111/j.0021-8901.2004.00985.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  13. Gordon IJ, Manning AD, Navarro LM, Rouet-Leduc J. Domestic Livestock and Rewilding: Are They Mutually Exclusive?. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems 2021;5550410.
  14. Ryser-Degiorgis MP. Wildlife Health Investigations: Needs, Challenges and Recommendations. BMC Veterinary Research 2013;9(1):p. 223.
    doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-9-223pmc: PMC4228302pubmed: 24188616google scholar: lookup
  15. Cardoso B, García-Bocanegra I, Acevedo P, Cáceres G, Alves PC, Gortázar C. Stepping up From Wildlife Disease Surveillance to Integrated Wildlife Monitoring in Europe. Research in Veterinary Science 2022;144:149–156.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2021.11.003pubmed: 34815105google scholar: lookup
  16. Delgado M, Ferrari N, Fanelli A. Wildlife Health Surveillance: Gaps, Needs and Opportunities. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l’OIE 2023;42:161–172.
    doi: 10.20506/rst.42.3359pubmed: 37232308google scholar: lookup
  17. Lawson B, Neimanis A, Lavazza A. How to Start Up a National Wildlife Health Surveillance Programme. Animals 2021;11(9):p. 2543.
    doi: 10.3390/ani11092543pmc: PMC8467383pubmed: 34573509google scholar: lookup
  18. Maas M, Gröne A, Kuiken T, Van Schaik G, Roest H I J, Van Der Giessen G J W B. Implementing Wildlife Disease Surveillance in the Netherlands, a One Health Approach. Revue Scientifique et Technique de l’OIE 2016;35(3):863–874.
    doi: 10.20506/rst.35.3.2575pubmed: 28332644google scholar: lookup
  19. Externe Begeleidingscommissie Beheer Oostvaardersplassen. Advies Beheer Oostvaardersplassen Kaders Voor Provinciaal Beleid Provincie Flevoland. Provincie Flevoland Lelystad; 2018.
  20. Hessels A L D. Protocollaire aanpak ter bepaling, bewaking en beheersing van mogelijke besmettelijke dierziekten bij de Heckrunderen in de Oostvaardersplassen. Faculteit Diergeneeskunde Universiteit van Utrecht; 1997.
  21. Moen A R. Monitoring gezondheid van de grote grazers in de Oostvaardersplassen vanuit het oogpunt van veterinaire bewking en zoönotische (volksgezonheid) aspecten. 2009.
  22. Moen A R. Dierziekten Monitoring Grote Grazers OVP. 2012.
  23. Staatsbosbeheer. Managementplan Oostvaardersplassen 2020-2027. 2020.
  24. R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing; 2024.
  25. Wickham H, Averick M, Bryan J. Welcome to the Tidyverse. Journal of Open Source Software 2019;4(43):p. 1686.
    doi: 10.21105/joss.01686google scholar: lookup
  26. Brown L D, Cai T T, DasGupta A. Interval Estimation for a Binomial Proportion. Statistical Science 2001;16(2):101–198.
    doi: 10.1214/ss/1009213285google scholar: lookup
  27. Stevenson M, Sergeant E. epiR: Tools for the Analysis of Epidemiological Data. 2024.
  28. Speybroeck N, Devleesschauwer B, Joseph L, Berkvens D. Misclassification Errors in Prevalence Estimation: Bayesian Handling With Care. International Journal of Public Health 2013;58(5):791–795.
    doi: 10.1007/s00038-012-0439-9pubmed: 23263198google scholar: lookup
  29. Brooks S P, Gelman A. General Methods for Monitoring Convergence of Iterative Simulations. Journal of Computational and Graphical Statistics 1998;7(4):434–455.
    doi: 10.1080/10618600.1998.10474787google scholar: lookup
  30. Devleesschauwer B, Torgerson P, Charlier J. Prevalence: Tools for Prevalence Assessment Studies. 2022.
  31. World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) 2024. n https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-manual-online-access/n
  32. Sergeant E. RSurveillance: Design and Analysis of Disease Surveillance Activities. 2020.
  33. Wickham H. ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis. New York: Springer International Publishing; 2016.
  34. Sabatini G A, de Almeida Borges F, Claerebout E. Practical Guide to the Diagnostics of Ruminant Gastrointestinal Nematodes, Liver Fluke and Lungworm Infection: Interpretation and Usability of Results. Parasites and Vectors 2023;16(1):p. 58.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-023-05680-wpmc: PMC9906602pubmed: 36755300google scholar: lookup
  35. ESCCAP. ESCCAP Guideline 08: A Guide to the Treatment and Control of 8 Equine Gastrointestinal Parasite Infections. 2019.
  36. Cameron A R, Baldock F C. A New Probability Formula for Surveys to Substantiate Freedom From Disease. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 1998;34(1):1–17.
    doi: 10.1016/S0167-5877(97)00081-0pubmed: 9541947google scholar: lookup
  37. Michael E, Smith M E, Katabarwa M N. Substantiating Freedom From Parasitic Infection by Combining Transmission Model Predictions With Disease Surveys. Nature Communications 2018;9(1):p. 4324.
    doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-06657-5pmc: PMC6193962pubmed: 30337529google scholar: lookup
  38. AusVet. Epitools-FreeCalc: Calculate Sample Size for Freedom Testing With Imperfect Tests. 2024.
  39. Santman-Berends I M G A, Mars M H, Weber M F. Control and Eradication Programs for Six Cattle Diseases in the Netherlands. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 2021;8:p. 670419.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.670419pmc: PMC8418201pubmed: 34490388google scholar: lookup
  40. Muylkens B, Thiry J, Kirten P, Schynts F, Thiry E. Bovine Herpesvirus 1 Infection and Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis. Veterinary Research 2007;38(2):181–209.
    doi: 10.1051/vetres:2006059pubmed: 17257569google scholar: lookup
  41. Rola J, Larska M, Socha W. Seroprevalence of Bovine Herpesvirus 1 Related Alphaherpesvirus Infections in Free-Living and Captive Cervids in Poland. Veterinary Microbiology 2017;204:77–83.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.04.006pubmed: 28532809google scholar: lookup
  42. Graham D A, Gallagher C, Carden R F, Lozano J M, Moriarty J, O’Neill R. A Survey of Free-Ranging Deer in Ireland for Serological Evidence of Exposure to Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus, Bovine Herpes Virus-1, Bluetongue Virus and Schmallenberg Virus. Irish Veterinary Journal 2017;70(1):p. 13.
    doi: 10.1186/s13620-017-0091-zpmc: PMC5427525pubmed: 28503294google scholar: lookup
  43. Thiry J, Keuser V, Muylkens B. Ruminant Alphaherpesviruses Related to Bovine Herpesvirus 1. Veterinary Research 2006;37(2):169–190.
    doi: 10.1051/vetres:2005052pubmed: 16472518google scholar: lookup
  44. Thiry J, Widén F, Grégoire F, Linden A, Belák S, Thiry E. Isolation and Characterisation of a Ruminant Alphaherpesvirus Closely Related to Bovine Herpesvirus 1 in a Free-Ranging Red Deer. BMC Veterinary Research 2007;3(1):p. 26.
    doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-3-26pmc: PMC2194762pubmed: 17903260google scholar: lookup
  45. Wellenberg G J, Mars M H, Van Oirschot J T. Antibodies Against Bovine Herpesvirus (BHV) 5 May be Differentiated From Antibodies Against BHV1 in a BHV1 Glycoprotein E Blocking ELISA. Veterinary Microbiology 2001;78(1):79–84.
    doi: 10.1016/S0378-1135(00)00283-2pubmed: 11118743google scholar: lookup
  46. Mollema L, a. Rijsewijk F M, Nodelijk G, de Jong M C M. Quantification of the Transmission of Bovine Herpesvirus 1 Among Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) Under Experimental Conditions. Veterinary Microbiology 2005;111(1-2):25–34.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2005.09.007pubmed: 16226408google scholar: lookup
  47. Holwerda M, Santman-Berends I M G A, Harders F. Emergence of Bluetongue Virus Serotype 3, the Netherlands, September 2023. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2024;30(8):1552–1561.
    doi: 10.3201/eid3008.231331pmc: PMC11286052pubmed: 38941965google scholar: lookup
  48. Casaubon J, Chaignat V, Vogt H R, Michel A O, Thür B, Ryser-Degiorgis M P. Survey of Bluetongue Virus Infection in Free-Ranging Wild Ruminants in Switzerland. BMC Veterinary Research 2013;9(1):p. 166.
    doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-9-166pmc: PMC3765105pubmed: 23941229google scholar: lookup
  49. Linden A, Gregoire F, Nahayo A. Bluetongue Virus in Wild Deer, Belgium, 2005-2008. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2010;16(5):833–836.
    pmc: PMC2953989pubmed: 20409376
  50. Wijburg S R, Fonville M, de Bruin A. Prevalence and Predictors of Vector-Borne Pathogens in Dutch Roe Deer. Parasites and Vectors 2022;15(1):p. 76.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-022-05195-wpmc: PMC8898454pubmed: 35248157google scholar: lookup
  51. Rossi S, Balenghien T, Viarouge C. Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) Did Not Play the Role of Maintenance Host for Bluetongue Virus in France: The Burden of Proof by Long-Term Wildlife Monitoring and Culicoides Snapshots. Viruses 2019;11(10):p. 903.
    doi: 10.3390/v11100903pmc: PMC6832957pubmed: 31569721google scholar: lookup
  52. Veldhuis A M B, Mars M H, a. Roos C J, van Wuyckhuise L, van Schaik G. Two Years After the Schmallenberg Virus Epidemic in the Netherlands: Does the Virus still Circulate?. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 2017;64(1):116–120.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.12349pubmed: 25903767google scholar: lookup
  53. Veldhuis A M B, van Schaik G, Vellema P. Schmallenberg Virus Epidemic in the Netherlands: Spatiotemporal Introduction in 2011 and Seroprevalence in Ruminants. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 2013;112(1-2):35–47.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2013.06.010pubmed: 23906391google scholar: lookup
  54. Wernike K, Beer M. More Than a Decade of Research on Schmallenberg Virus-Knowns and Unknowns. Advances in Virus Research 2024;120:77–98.
    doi: 10.1016/bs.aivir.2024.09.003pubmed: 39455169google scholar: lookup
  55. Jiménez-Ruiz S, Risalde M A, Acevedo P. Serosurveillance of Schmallenberg Virus in Wild Ruminants in Spain. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 2021;68(2):347–354.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13680pubmed: 32530115google scholar: lookup
  56. Bayrou C, Lesenfants C, Paternostre J. Schmallenberg Virus, Cyclical Reemergence in the Core Region: A Seroepidemiologic Study in Wild Cervids, Belgium, 2012–2017. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 2022;69(3):1625–1633.
    pubmed: 33949132
  57. Pieterse M C, Eisenberg S W F, Folmer G E. Evidence of Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis Infection in Dutch Farmed Red Deer. Tijdschr Diergeneeskd 2010;135(23):886–890.
    pubmed: 21207913
  58. Whittington R, Donat K, Weber M F. Control of Paratuberculosis: Who, Why and How. A Review of 48 Countries. BMC Veterinary Research 2019;15(1):p. 198.
    pmc: PMC6567393pubmed: 31196162
  59. Fritsch I, Luyven G, Köhler H, Lutz W, Möbius P. Suspicion of Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis Transmission Between Cattle and Wild-Living Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) by Multitarget Genotyping. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 2012;78(4):1132–1139.
    doi: 10.1128/AEM.06812-11pmc: PMC3273033pubmed: 22179249google scholar: lookup
  60. Galiero A, Leo S, Garbarino C. Mycobacterium avium subsp. Paratuberculosis Isolated From Wild Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) in Northern Italy. Veterinary Microbiology 2018;217:167–172.
    pubmed: 29615250
  61. Lienhard J, Friedel U, Paganini C, Hilbe M, Scherrer S, Schmitt S. Isolation of Mycobacterium avium ssp. Paratuberculosis and Other Non-Tuberculous Mycobacteria From Head Lymph Nodes of Wild Ruminants and Badgers in Switzerland. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 2024;10:p. 1321106.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1321106pmc: PMC10794427pubmed: 38239749google scholar: lookup
  62. Beesley N J, Caminade C, Charlier J. Fasciola and Fasciolosis in Ruminants in Europe: Identifying Research Needs. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases 2018;65(Suppl 1):199–216.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.12682pmc: PMC6190748pubmed: 28984428google scholar: lookup
  63. Arias M S, Piñeiro P, Sánchez-Andrade R. Relationship Between Exposure to Fasciola hepatica in Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus) and Cattle Extensively Reared in an Endemic Area. Research in Veterinary Science 2013;95(3):1031–1035.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2013.07.027pubmed: 23993660google scholar: lookup
  64. Scharnböck B, Roch F F, Richter V. A Meta-Analysis of Bovine Viral Diarrhoea Virus (BVDV) Prevalences in the Global Cattle Population. Scientific Reports 2018;8(1):p. 14420.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-018-32831-2pmc: PMC6158279pubmed: 30258185google scholar: lookup
  65. Casaubon J, Vogt H R, Stalder H, Hug C, Ryser-Degiorgis M P. Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus in Free-Ranging Wild Ruminants in Switzerland: Low Prevalence of Infection Despite Regular Interactions With Domestic Livestock. BMC Veterinary Research 2012;8(1):p. 204.
    doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-8-204pmc: PMC3514304pubmed: 23107231google scholar: lookup
  66. Passler T, Ditchkoff S S, Walz P H. Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus (BVDV) in White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Frontiers in Microbiology 2016;7:p. 945.
    doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00945pmc: PMC4913084pubmed: 27379074google scholar: lookup
  67. Ricci S, Bartolini S, Morandi F, Cuteri V, Preziuso S. Genotyping of Pestivirus A (Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus 1) Detected in Faeces and in Other Specimens of Domestic and Wild Ruminants at the Wildlife-Livestock Interface. Veterinary Microbiology 2019;235:180–187.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2019.07.002pubmed: 31383300google scholar: lookup
  68. van Engelen E, Schotten N, Schimmer B, Hautvast JLA, van Schaik G, van Duijnhoven YTHP. Prevalence and Risk Factors for Coxiella burnetii (Q Fever) in Dutch Dairy Cattle Herds Based on Bulk Tank Milk Testing. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 2014;117(1):103–109.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2014.08.016pubmed: 25239684google scholar: lookup
  69. Espí A, Del Cerro A, Oleaga Á. One Health Approach: An Overview of Q Fever in Livestock, Wildlife and Humans in Asturias (Northwestern Spain). Animals 2021;11(5):p. 1395.
    doi: 10.3390/ani11051395pmc: PMC8153578pubmed: 34068431google scholar: lookup
  70. Fabri ND, Santman-Berends IMGA, Weber MF, van Schaik G. Risk Factors for the Introduction of Salmonella spp. Serogroups B and D into Dutch Dairy Herds. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 2024;232:p. 106313.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2024.106313pubmed: 39180947google scholar: lookup
  71. van Maanen C, Heldens J, Cullinane AA, van den Hoven R, Weststrate M. The Prevalence of Antibodies against Equine Influenza Virus, Equine Herpesvirus 1 and 4, Equine Arteritis Virus and Equine Rhinovirus 1 and 2 in Dutch Standardbred Horses. Vlaams Diergeneeskundig Tijdschrift 2005;74(2):140–145.
    doi: 10.21825/vdt.89070google scholar: lookup
  72. Guevara L, Abdelgawad A, Onzere C. Seroprevalence of Equine Herpesviruses 1 and 9 (EHV-1 and EHV-9) in Wild Grévy’s Zebra (Equus grevyi) in Kenya. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 2018;54(4):848–851.
    doi: 10.7589/2018-01-003pubmed: 29792760google scholar: lookup
  73. Walker JG, Morgan ER. Generalists at the Interface: Nematode Transmission Between Wild and Domestic Ungulates. International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife 2014;3(3):242–250.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2014.08.001pmc: PMC4241528pubmed: 25426420google scholar: lookup
  74. Royal GD. Monitoring and Surveillance. 2024.
  75. Žele-Vengušt D, Lindtner-Knific R, Mlakar-Hrženjak N, Jerina K, Vengušt G. Exposure of Free-Ranging Wild Animals to Zoonotic Leptospira interrogans Sensu Stricto in Slovenia. Animals 2021;11(9):p. 2722.
    doi: 10.3390/ani11092722pmc: PMC8468819pubmed: 34573688google scholar: lookup
  76. Andreoli E, Radaelli E, Bertoletti I. Leptospira spp. Infection in Wild Ruminants: A Survey in Central Italian Alps. Veterinaria Italiana 2014;50(4):285–291.
    pubmed: 25546066
  77. Bouma A, Elbers ARW, Dekker A. The Foot-and-Mouth Disease Epidemic in the Netherlands in 2001. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 2003;57(3):155–166.
    doi: 10.1016/S0167-5877(02)00217-9pubmed: 12581598google scholar: lookup
  78. Rijks JM, Roest HIJ, van Tulden PW, Kik MJL, IJzer J, Gröne A. Coxiella burnetii Infection in Roe Deer during Q Fever Epidemic, the Netherlands. Emerging Infectious Diseases 2011;17(12):2369–2371.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1712.110580pmc: PMC3311195pubmed: 22172398google scholar: lookup
  79. Zendoia II, Cevidanes A, Hurtado A. Stable Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in Wildlife After a Decade of Surveillance in Northern Spain. Veterinary Microbiology 2022;268.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2022.109422pubmed: 35421829google scholar: lookup
  80. Žele Vengušt D, Krt B, Blagus R, Vengušt G, Bandelj P. Seroprevalence of Infectious Pathogens of Zoonotic and Veterinary Importance in Wild Ruminants From Slovenia. Frontiers in Veterinary Science 2024;11.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1415304pmc: PMC11194780pubmed: 38915887google scholar: lookup
  81. Vikøren T, Våge J, Madslien KI. First Detection of Chronic Wasting Disease in a Wild Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) in Europe. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 2019;55(4):970–972.
    doi: 10.7589/2018-10-262pubmed: 30920905google scholar: lookup
  82. Tranulis MA, Gavier-Widén D, Våge J. Chronic Wasting Disease in Europe: New Strains on the Horizon. Acta Veterinaria Scandinavica 2021;63(1):p. 48.
    doi: 10.1186/s13028-021-00606-xpmc: PMC8613970pubmed: 34823556google scholar: lookup
  83. Roberts H. Equine Infectious Anaemia in Europe: An Ongoing Threat to the UK. Veterinary Record 2017;181(17):442–446.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.j4721pubmed: 29074793google scholar: lookup
  84. Streng K, Hakze-van der Honing RW, Graham H. Orthoflavivirus Surveillance in the Netherlands: Insights From a Serosurvey in Horses and Dogs and a Questionnaire Among Horse Owners. Zoonoses and Public Health 2024;71(8):900–910.
    doi: 10.1111/zph.13171pubmed: 39057842google scholar: lookup
  85. Stallknecht DE. Impediments to Wildlife Disease Surveillance, Research, and Diagnostics. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2007;315:445–461.
    doi: 10.1007/978-3-540-70962-6_17pubmed: 17848074google scholar: lookup
  86. Jia B, Colling A, Stallknecht DE. Validation of Laboratory Tests for Infectious Diseases in Wild Mammals: Review and Recommendations. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 2020;32(6):776–792.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638720920346pmc: PMC7649530pubmed: 32468923google scholar: lookup
  87. Ciliberti A, Gavier-Widén D, Yon L, Hutchings MR, Artois M. Prioritisation of Wildlife Pathogens to Be Targeted in European Surveillance Programmes: Expert-Based Risk Analysis Focus on Ruminants. Preventive Veterinary Medicine 2015;118(4):271–284.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2014.11.021pubmed: 25496774google scholar: lookup
  88. Gondard M, Postic L, Garin E. Exceptional Bluetongue Virus (BTV) and Epizootic Hemorrhagic Disease Virus (EHDV) Circulation in France in 2023. Virus Research 2024;350.
    doi: 10.1016/j.virusres.2024.199489pmc: PMC11565556pubmed: 39471970google scholar: lookup
  89. Caserta LC, Frye EA, Butt SL. Spillover of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 Virus to Dairy Cattle. Nature 2024;634(8034):669–676.
    doi: 10.1038/s41586-024-07849-4pmc: PMC11485258pubmed: 39053575google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,075 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.