The scaling of uphill and downhill locomotion in legged animals.
Abstract: Animals must continually respond dynamically as they move through complex environments, and slopes are a common terrain on which legged animals must move. Despite this, non-level locomotion remains poorly understood. In this study, we first review the literature on locomotor mechanics, metabolic cost, and kinematic strategies on slopes. Using existing literature we then performed scaling analyses of kinematic variables, including speed, duty factor, and stride-length across a range of body sizes from ants to horses. The studies that examined locomotion on inclines vastly outnumbered those focusing on declines. On inclines, animals tend to reduce speed and increase duty factor, but a similar consensus could not be reached for declines. Remarkably, stride-length did not differ between locomotion on inclines and on level terrain, but this may have resulted from data only being available for low slopes (<30°). On declines there appears to be a shift in locomotor strategy that is size-dependent. At masses <1-10 kg, animals tended to use shorter strides than on level terrain, and the opposite occurred at larger body masses. Therefore, possibly due to stability issues, body mass plays a significant role in the locomotor strategy used when traveling downhill. Although we currently lack sufficient data, differential leg function is likely to be critical for locomotion on slopes, with mechanical demands differing on limbs during movement on level, inclined, and declined surfaces. Our scaling analysis not only highlights areas that require future work, but also suggests that body size is important for determining the mechanics and strategies animals use to negotiate non-level terrain. It is clear that selection has resulted in an incredible range of body size among animals, both extant and extinct, and it is likely that the ability to move up and down slopes has constrained or relaxed these mechanical pressures. Given the lack of integration of ecological data with laboratory experiments, future work should first determine which inclines animals actually use in nature, as this likely plays a key role in behaviors such as predator-prey interactions.
© The Author 2014. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Integrative and Comparative Biology. All rights reserved. For permissions please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.
Publication Date: 2014-04-14 PubMed ID: 24733147DOI: 10.1093/icb/icu015Google Scholar: Lookup
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Summary
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The research explores how various animals, spanning from ants to horses, navigate through inclined and declined terrains. Through an analysis of previous research and new data, the article finds that body size plays a significant role in defining the locomotive strategies employed by animals on non-level ground.
Literature Review
- The research commenced by reviewing existing literature on locomotor mechanics, metabolic cost, and kinematic strategies on slopes. The scholars concluded that existing literature primarily focused on the uphill movement of animals, with lesser focus on downhill locomotion.
Kinematic Variables
- The study carried out a scaling analysis of critical kinematic variables, specifically speed, duty factor, and stride-length, for different types of legged animals.
- The researchers’ findings revealed that animals on inclined paths tend to deliberately decrease their speed and increase their duty factor. However, a similar consensus around downhill locomotion could not be established.
Stride-Length
- Interesting to note was the similar stride-length demonstrated during both level ground and uphill locomotion. The authors, however, associated this observation with a data deficiency for higher slopes (those greater than 30°).
- Downhill locomotion, on the contrary, exhibited a size-dependent shift signaling that a body mass of less than 1-10 kg led animals to use shorter strides as compared to those on level terrain. Larger bodied animals displayed the opposite behavior.
The Role of Body Mass
- This led the authors of the study to identify the significant role body mass plays in designing the locomotor strategy for animals navigating through downhill terrains. The scholars attributed possible stability issues as a driving factor behind this phenomenon.
Prospective Research Areas
- The study deduced that examining the differential function of legs could unravel significant insights into locomotion on slopes, considering the contrasting mechanical demands placed on limbs during level, inclined, and declined movement.
- In conclusion, they revealed that there exists a strong connection between body size and the strategies and mechanics employed by animals to traverse non-level terrains. The research indicated that the ability to navigate slopes might have dictated the diverse animal body sizes observed in nature.
Future Recommendations
- The study concluded by cautioning against the lack of ecological data on actual inclines used by animals. The research also highlighted the urgent need for future research to incorporate such ecological studies with laboratory experiments to facilitate a nuanced understanding of locomotor dynamics. This integration is necessary to unravel how slope navigation affects vital behaviors such as predator-prey interactions in a natural environment.
Cite This Article
APA
Birn-Jeffery AV, Higham TE.
(2014).
The scaling of uphill and downhill locomotion in legged animals.
Integr Comp Biol, 54(6), 1159-1172.
https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/icu015 Publication
Researcher Affiliations
- Department of Biology, University of California Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA aleks.birnjeffery@ucr.edu.
- Department of Biology, University of California Riverside, 900 University Avenue, Riverside, CA, 92521, USA.
MeSH Terms
- Animals
- Biological Evolution
- Biomechanical Phenomena
- Body Size
- Body Weights and Measures
- Extremities / physiology
- Gait / physiology
- Locomotion / physiology
- Models, Biological
- Selection, Genetic
- Species Specificity
Citations
This article has been cited 17 times.- Fannin LD, Joy MS, Dominy NJ, McGraw WS, DeSilva JM. Downclimbing and the evolution of ape forelimb morphologies.. R Soc Open Sci 2023 Sep;10(9):230145.
- Pezzanite LM, Timkovich AE, Sikes KJ, Chow L, Hendrickson DA, Becker JR, Webster A, Santangelo KS, Dow S. Erythrocyte removal from bone marrow aspirate concentrate improves efficacy as intra-articular cellular therapy in a rodent osteoarthritis model.. Ann Transl Med 2023 Jun 30;11(9):311.
- Labonte D. A theory of physiological similarity in muscle-driven motion.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023 Jun 13;120(24):e2221217120.
- Schultz JT, Labonte D, Clemente CJ. Multilevel dynamic adjustments of geckos (Hemidactylus frenatus) climbing vertically: head-up versus head-down.. J R Soc Interface 2023 Apr;20(201):20220840.
- Ozone K, Minegishi Y, Oka Y, Sato M, Kanemura N. The Effects of Downhill Running and Maturation on Histological and Morphological Properties of Tendon and Enthesis in Mice.. Biology (Basel) 2023 Mar 16;12(3).
- Dickinson ER, Twining JP, Wilson R, Stephens PA, Westander J, Marks N, Scantlebury DM. Limitations of using surrogates for behaviour classification of accelerometer data: refining methods using random forest models in Caprids.. Mov Ecol 2021 Jun 7;9(1):28.
- Silva V, Biancardi C, Perafán C, Ortíz D, Fábrica G, Pérez-Miles F. Giant steps: adhesion and locomotion in theraphosid tarantulas.. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2021 Mar;207(2):179-190.
- Dunford CE, Marks NJ, Wilmers CC, Bryce CM, Nickel B, Wolfe LL, Scantlebury DM, Williams TM. Surviving in steep terrain: a lab-to-field assessment of locomotor costs for wild mountain lions (Puma concolor).. Mov Ecol 2020;8:34.
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- LeBlanc C, Tobalske B, Szkotnicki B, Harlander-Matauschek A. Locomotor Behavior of Chickens Anticipating Incline Walking.. Front Vet Sci 2017;4:233.
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