FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Proc Biol Sci / Unveiling the Xianbei cavalry: a multidisciplinary approach ...
Proceedings. Biological sciences2025; 292(2054); 20251705; doi: 10.1098/rspb.2025.1705

Unveiling the Xianbei cavalry: a multidisciplinary approach to restore and analyse the first horse-cavalry armour set in China.

Abstract: Between the third and sixth centuries AD (Anno Domini), the Xianbei emerged as a dominant nomadic power in the Eastern Eurasian Steppe, distinguished by their exceptional equestrian culture and the pivotal role of cavalry in warfare. Despite their historical significance, detailed knowledge of their cavalry's weaponry and equipment-particularly armour-remains fragmentary. As a critical element of military technology, armour offers valuable insights into ancient combat strategies and cultural practices. However, research on early Chinese cavalry armour has been constrained by limited textual records and the scarcity of well-preserved archaeological specimens. This study presents a systematic reconstruction of the earliest known set of horse-cavalry armour, excavated from the Lamadong Cemetery in Beipiao City, Liaoning Province, China. By combining traditional archaeological methods with advanced analytical techniques-including microscopic morphological analysis, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and palaeoproteomics-we successfully restored the armour's physical structure and determined its material composition. This 1600-year-old nomadic cavalry equipment not only reveals Xianbei's advanced manufacturing techniques but also provides the first evidence of sheep-derived materials in ancient armour production. Our findings underscore the importance of multidisciplinary approaches in archaeological research, demonstrating how palaeoproteomics, in particular, can offer novel perspectives on material sourcing and technological practices in antiquity.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-09-10 PubMed ID: 40925564PubMed Central: PMC12419894DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2025.1705Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Historical Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This research reconstructs and analyzes the earliest known horse-cavalry armour in China, dating back 1600 years to the Xianbei nomadic culture.
  • It uses multidisciplinary methods to reveal the armour’s structure, composition, and historical significance, providing new insights into ancient cavalry warfare and material technology.

Background and Significance

  • The Xianbei were a dominant nomadic group in the Eastern Eurasian Steppe from the 3rd to 6th centuries AD, known for their elite horse-riding skills and cavalry-based warfare.
  • Their cavalry equipment, especially armour, is poorly documented due to limited historical texts and rare archaeological finds.
  • Armour serves as a key source for understanding military strategies and cultural practices of ancient societies.
  • This study focuses on a unique archaeological discovery from the Lamadong Cemetery in Liaoning Province, China — the earliest intact horse-cavalry armour set linked to the Xianbei.

Research Objectives

  • To restore the physical structure of the 1600-year-old horse-cavalry armour.
  • To identify the material composition of the armour using advanced scientific techniques.
  • To gain insights into the manufacturing technologies and material sourcing used by the Xianbei.
  • To demonstrate the value of combining archaeological methods with modern analytical technologies like palaeoproteomics.

Methodology

  • Traditional Archaeological Methods: Careful excavation and contextual analysis to understand the armour’s construction and archaeological setting.
  • Microscopic Morphological Analysis: Examining the fine structure and surface features of the armour materials to identify craftsmanship details.
  • Fourier-transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR): Spectroscopic method used to analyze the chemical composition of the armour materials non-destructively.
  • Palaeoproteomics: Protein analysis to identify the biological origin of organic materials used in the armour, revealing the use of sheep-derived materials.

Key Findings

  • The armour was successfully reconstructed, revealing its original physical structure for the first time.
  • The materials used were identified; notably, this is the earliest evidence of incorporating sheep-derived proteins in armour manufacturing.
  • Findings highlight the advanced craftsmanship and technological expertise of the Xianbei in producing durable cavalry armour.
  • The integration of palaeoproteomics provided new avenues to determine material sourcing and technological practices that were previously inaccessible through traditional archaeological methods alone.

Implications and Contributions

  • This research fills a significant gap in the understanding of early Chinese cavalry equipment, an area previously hindered by scarce artefacts and limited documentation.
  • The multidisciplinary approach exemplifies how combining archaeology with modern scientific tools enhances the reconstruction and interpretation of ancient materials.
  • Demonstrates palaeoproteomics as a powerful technique in archaeology for identifying organic materials, enabling deeper insights into ancient manufacturing and resource utilization.
  • Contributes to broader knowledge on the military history of the Eurasian Steppe nomads and their role in shaping ancient warfare and culture in East Asia.

Conclusion

  • The study provides the first comprehensive reconstruction and material analysis of Xianbei horse-cavalry armour, highlighting their sophisticated technological capabilities.
  • It reveals new evidence of sheep-based materials used in ancient armour, offering fresh perspectives on material selection in antiquity.
  • Emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary research in archaeology to uncover complex historical narratives and technical details.

Cite This Article

APA
Yang S, Xiao J, Mu L, Li C, Dai S, Li S, Cui Y, Xu Y. (2025). Unveiling the Xianbei cavalry: a multidisciplinary approach to restore and analyse the first horse-cavalry armour set in China. Proc Biol Sci, 292(2054), 20251705. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2025.1705

Publication

Proceedings. Biological sciences
ISSN: 1471-2954
NlmUniqueID: 101245157
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 292
Issue: 2054
Pages: 20251705
PII: 20251705

Researcher Affiliations

Yang, Shasha
  • School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130012, People's Republic of China.
  • Bioarchaeology Laboratory, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130012, People's Republic of China.
Xiao, Juntao
  • Liaoning Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, Shenyang, Liaoning 110001, People's Republic of China.
Mu, Le
  • Baotou Museum, Baotou, Inner Mongolia 014010, People's Republic of China.
Li, Chenyuan
  • Institute for Cultural Heritage and History of Science & Technology, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing 100083, People's Republic of China.
Dai, Shenru
  • School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130012, People's Republic of China.
Li, Shuang
  • School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130012, People's Republic of China.
Cui, Yinqiu
  • School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130012, People's Republic of China.
  • Bioarchaeology Laboratory, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130012, People's Republic of China.
Xu, Yang
  • School of Life Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130012, People's Republic of China.
  • Bioarchaeology Laboratory, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin 130012, People's Republic of China.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Humans
  • Archaeology
  • Cemeteries
  • China
  • History, Ancient
  • Spectroscopy, Fourier Transform Infrared

Grant Funding

  • National Natural Science Foundation of China

Conflict of Interest Statement

We declare we have no competing interests.

References

This article includes 58 references
  1. He H, Hu T. Studies on development of ancient armour. In A collection of essays about capital museum of china, pp. 9–15.
  2. Childe VG. The urban revolution. Town Plan. Rev. 21, 3.
    doi: 10.3828/tpr.21.1.k853061t614q42qhgoogle scholar: lookup
  3. Harding AF. European societies in the Bronze Age. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
  4. Pleiner R. Iron in archaeology. In The european bloomery smelters, pp. 41–45.
  5. Drews R. The end of the bronze age: changes in warfare and the catastrophe ca. 1200 bc. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
  6. Richardson T. The Archibald Hauberk. In Royal Armouries yearbook, p. 30.
  7. Wertmann P, Xu D, Elkina I, Vogel R, Yibulayinmu M, Tarasov PE, La Rocca DJ, Wagner M. No borders for innovations: a ca. 2700-year-old Assyrian-style leather scale armour in Northwest China. Quat. Int. 623, 110–126.
    doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2021.11.014google scholar: lookup
  8. Brody LR, Hoffman GL. Yale University and Dura-Europos: from excavation to exhibition. pp. 17–32.
  9. Ffoulkes C, Traquair R. On Italian armour from Chalcis in the Ethnological Museum at Athens. Archaeologia 62, 381–390.
    doi: 10.1017/S0261340900008225google scholar: lookup
  10. Ryan J, Barnes G, Helaine S. Armor in Japan and Korea. In Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology, and medicine in non-Western cultures, pp. 1–16.
    doi: 10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_10234-1google scholar: lookup
  11. Rocca DJ. Asian arms and armour at the met. Arts Asia 61.
  12. Pyhrr SW. Of arms and men: arms and armor at the Metropolitan 1912–2012. The metropolitan museum of art bulletin pp. 1–48, vol. 70.
  13. Hayward J. Armour and arms from Vienna. pp. 201–203, vol. 91.
  14. Rudorff R. Knights and the age of chivalry. New York, NY: Viking Press.
  15. Hrouda B, Bottéro J. Der alte orient: geschichte und kultur des alten vorderasien. Munich, Germany: Bertelsmann.
  16. La Rocca HJ. 2017. How to read european armor, pp. 10–11, vol. 6. New York, NY: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
  17. Zhang W. 2005. A study of discovered armors and helmets from pre-Qin to Han Dynasties [PhD thesis]. Zhengzhou, China: Zhengzhou University.
  18. Yang H. 1976. Studies on the ancient Chinese armours (part I). Acta Archaeologica Sinica 90. ( 10.1111/j.1600-0390.2019.12201.x)
    doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0390.2019.12201.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  19. Yang H. 1976. Studies on the ancient Chinese armours (Part II). Acta Archaeologica Sinica 90, 1–11. ( 10.1111/j.1600-0390.2019.12201.x)
    doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0390.2019.12201.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  20. Jeong C, et al. 2020. A dynamic 6,000-year genetic history of Eurasia’s Eastern Steppe. Cell 183, 890–904.( 10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015)
    doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.10.015pmc: PMC7664836pubmed: 33157037google scholar: lookup
  21. Bai R, Wan X, Yun Y, Jun T, Wang S, Wan X. 2008. Study on restoration of iron armor unearthed from Sixteen Kingdoms tombs in Beipiao Lamadong, Liaoning Province. Cultural Relics.
  22. Xiao J. 2011. Research on recovery of iron armor from tomb no.5 at Lamadong site of Beipiao in Liaoning Province. Changchun, China: JiLin University.
  23. Wan X. 2004. Excavation of the cemetery at Lamadong, Beipiao, Liaoning, in 1998. Acta Archaeologica 90, 1–11. ( 10.1111/j.1600-0390.2019.12201.x)
    doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0390.2019.12201.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  24. Parkinson E, Devries K. 1994. Medieval military technology. Technology and Culture 35, 183.
  25. Liao LM, Pan CX, Ma Y. 2010. Manufacturing techniques of armor strips excavated from Emperor Qin Shi Huang’s mausoleum, China. Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 20, 395–399. ( 10.1016/s1003-6326(09)60152-7)
    doi: 10.1016/s1003-6326(09)60152-7google scholar: lookup
  26. Dien AE. 1981. A study of early Chinese armor. Artibus Asiae 43, 5–66. ( 10.2307/3249826)
    doi: 10.2307/3249826google scholar: lookup
  27. Hendy J. 2021. Ancient protein analysis in archaeology. Sci. Adv. 7, eabb9314. ( 10.1126/sciadv.abb9314)
    doi: 10.1126/sciadv.abb9314pmc: PMC7810370pubmed: 33523896google scholar: lookup
  28. Warinner C, Korzow Richter K, Collins MJ. 2022. Paleoproteomics. Chem. Rev. 122, 13401–13446. ( 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00703)
    doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00703pmc: PMC9412968pubmed: 35839101google scholar: lookup
  29. Brown S, et al. 2021. Zooarchaeology through the lens of collagen fingerprinting at Denisova Cave. Sci. Rep. 11, 15457. ( 10.1038/s41598-021-94731-2)
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-94731-2pmc: PMC8322063pubmed: 34326389google scholar: lookup
  30. Scibè C, Eng-Wilmot K, Lam T, Tosini I, López MJG, Solazzo C. 2024. Palaeoproteomics and microanalysis reveal techniques of production of animal-based metal threads in medieval textiles. Sci. Rep. 14, 5320. ( 10.1038/s41598-024-54480-4)
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-54480-4pmc: PMC10912450pubmed: 38438441google scholar: lookup
  31. Welker F, et al. 2019. Enamel proteome shows that Gigantopithecus was an early diverging pongine. Nature 576, 262–265. ( 10.1038/s41586-019-1728-8)
    doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1728-8pmc: PMC6908745pubmed: 31723270google scholar: lookup
  32. Cappellini E, et al. 2019. Early Pleistocene enamel proteome from Dmanisi resolves Stephanorhinus phylogeny. Nature 574, 103–107. ( 10.1038/s41586-019-1555-y)
    doi: 10.1038/s41586-019-1555-ypmc: PMC6894936pubmed: 31511700google scholar: lookup
  33. Wilkin S, et al. 2021. Dairying enabled early Bronze Age Yamnaya Steppe expansions. Nature 598, 629–633. ( 10.1038/s41586-021-03798-4)
    doi: 10.1038/s41586-021-03798-4pmc: PMC8550948pubmed: 34526723google scholar: lookup
  34. Bleasdale M, et al. 2021. Ancient proteins provide evidence of dairy consumption in eastern Africa. Nat. Commun. 12, 632. ( 10.1038/s41467-020-20682-3)
    doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-20682-3pmc: PMC7841170pubmed: 33504791google scholar: lookup
  35. Xie M, Shevchenko A, Wang B, Shevchenko A, Wang C, Yang Y. 2016. Identification of a dairy product in the grass woven basket from Gumugou Cemetery (3800 BP, northwestern China). Quat. Int. 426, 158–165. ( 10.1016/j.quaint.2016.04.015)
    doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2016.04.015google scholar: lookup
  36. Jeong C, et al. 2018. Bronze Age population dynamics and the rise of dairy pastoralism on the eastern Eurasian Steppe. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 115, E11248–E11255. ( 10.1073/pnas.1813608115)
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.1813608115pmc: PMC6275519pubmed: 30397125google scholar: lookup
  37. Ren M, Ren X, Wang X, Yang Y. 2022. Characterization of the incense sacrificed to the sarira of Sakyamuni from Famen Royal Temple during the ninth century in China. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 119, e2112724119. ( 10.1073/pnas.2112724119)
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.2112724119pmc: PMC9173757pubmed: 35576464google scholar: lookup
  38. Brandt LØ, Taurozzi AJ, Mackie M, Sinding MHS, Vieira FG, Schmidt AL, Rimstad C, Collins MJ, Mannering U. 2022. Palaeoproteomics identifies beaver fur in Danish high-status Viking Age burials - direct evidence of fur trade. PLoS One 17, e0270040. ( 10.1371/journal.pone.0270040)
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0270040pmc: PMC9328512pubmed: 35895633google scholar: lookup
  39. Peters C, Richter KK, Svenning JC, Boivin N. 2022. Leveraging palaeoproteomics to address conservation and restoration agendas. iScience 25, 104195. ( 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104195)
    doi: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104195pmc: PMC9036121pubmed: 35479402google scholar: lookup
  40. Hendy J, Welker F, Demarchi B, Speller C, Warinner C, Collins MJ. 2018. A guide to ancient protein studies. Nat. Ecol. Evol. 2, 791–799. ( 10.1038/s41559-018-0510-x)
    doi: 10.1038/s41559-018-0510-xpubmed: 29581591google scholar: lookup
  41. Wiśniewski JR, Zougman A, Nagaraj N, Mann M. 2009. Universal sample preparation method for proteome analysis. Nat. Methods 6, 359–362. ( 10.1038/nmeth.1322)
    doi: 10.1038/nmeth.1322pubmed: 19377485google scholar: lookup
  42. Perkins DN, Pappin DJC, Creasy DM, Cottrell JS. 1999. Probability-based protein identification by searching sequence databases using mass spectrometry data. Electrophoresis 20, 3551–3567. ( 10.1002/(sici)1522-2683(19991201)20:183.0.co;2-2)
    doi: 10.1002/(sici)1522-2683(19991201)20:183.0.co;2-2pubmed: 10612281google scholar: lookup
  43. Sim D, Ridge I. 2002. Iron for the eagles: the iron industry of Roman. Stroud, UK: Tempus.
  44. Chen JL. 2005. The development of iron and steel technology of ancient Northeast China —view from the metallurgical studies of ferrous artifacts. Northern Cultural Relics 1, 17.
  45. Buckley M, Collins M, Thomas‐Oates J, Wilson JC. 2009. Species identification by analysis of bone collagen using matrix‐assisted laser desorption/ionisation time‐of‐flight mass spectrometry. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 23, 3843–3854. ( 10.1002/rcm.4316)
    doi: 10.1002/rcm.4316pubmed: 19899187google scholar: lookup
  46. Richter KK, Codlin MC, Seabrook M, Warinner C. 2022. A primer for ZooMS applications in archaeology. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 119, e2109323119. ( 10.1073/pnas.2109323119)
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.2109323119pmc: PMC9171758pubmed: 35537051google scholar: lookup
  47. van Doorn NL, Wilson J, Hollund H, Soressi M, Collins MJ. 2012. Site‐specific deamidation of glutamine: a new marker of bone collagen deterioration. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 26, 2319–2327. ( 10.1002/rcm.6351)
    doi: 10.1002/rcm.6351pubmed: 22956324google scholar: lookup
  48. Schroeter ER, Cleland TP. 2016. Glutamine deamidation: an indicator of antiquity, or preservational quality? Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 30, 251–255. ( 10.1002/rcm.7445)
    doi: 10.1002/rcm.7445pubmed: 26689157google scholar: lookup
  49. Ramsøe A, Crispin M, Mackie M, McGrath K, Fischer R, Demarchi B, Collins MJ, Hendy J, Speller C. 2021. Assessing the degradation of ancient milk proteins through site-specific deamidation patterns. Sci. Rep. 11, 7795. ( 10.1038/s41598-021-87125-x)
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-87125-xpmc: PMC8032661pubmed: 33833277google scholar: lookup
  50. Ramsøe A, van Heekeren V, Ponce P, Fischer R, Barnes I, Speller C, Collins MJ. 2020. DeamiDATE 1.0: Site-specific deamidation as a tool to assess authenticity of members of ancient proteomes. J. Archaeol. Sci. 115, 105080. ( 10.1016/j.jas.2020.105080)
    doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2020.105080google scholar: lookup
  51. Bragulla HH, Homberger DG. 2009. Structure and functions of keratin proteins in simple, stratified, keratinized and cornified epithelia. J. Anat. 214, 516–559. ( 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01066.x)
    doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2009.01066.xpmc: PMC2736122pubmed: 19422428google scholar: lookup
  52. Bayarsaikhan J, et al. 2024. The origins of saddles and riding technology in East Asia: discoveries from the Mongolian Altai. Antiquity 98, 102–118. ( 10.15184/aqy.2023.172)
    doi: 10.15184/aqy.2023.172google scholar: lookup
  53. Qian M, Zhang J. 2016. Types and characteristics of Wei Jin Southern and Northern Dynasties. Art & Design Research.
  54. Rolle R. 1989. The world of the Scythians. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
  55. Jacobson E. 1995. The art of the Scythians: the interpenetration of cultures at the edge of the Hellenic World. Leiden, The Netherlands: E.J. Brill.
  56. Liu C. 2017. Re-discussion on the form of living industry in Murong Xianbei - centered on Lamadong cemetery. Agricultural Archaeology 151, 24–30.
  57. Yang SS, Xiao JT, Mu L, Li CY, Dai SR, Li S, Cui YQ, Xu Y. 2025. Data for: Unveiling the Xianbei cavalry: a multidisciplinary approach to restore and analyse the first horse-cavalry armour set in China. Dryad Digital Repository. ( 10.5061/dryad.vq83bk45t)
    doi: 10.5061/dryad.vq83bk45tpubmed: 40925564google scholar: lookup
  58. Yang S, Xiao J, Mu L, Chenyuan LI, Dai S, Li S, Cui YQ, Xu Y. 2025. Supplementary material from: Unveiling the Xianbei cavalry: a multidisciplinary approach to restore and analyse the first horse-cavalry armour set in China. Figshare. ( 10.6084/m9.figshare.c.7970549)
    doi: 10.6084/m9.figshare.c.7970549pubmed: 40925564google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,002 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.