FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America2001; 33(10); 1713-1719; doi: 10.1086/322700

West Nile encephalitis: an emerging disease in the United States.

Abstract: In 1999, an epidemic of West Nile virus (WNV) encephalitis occurred in New York City (NYC) and 2 surrounding New York counties. Simultaneously, an epizootic among American crows and other bird species occurred in 4 states. Indigenous transmission of WNV had never been documented in the western hemisphere until this epidemic. In 2000, the epizootic expanded to 12 states and the District of Columbia, and the epidemic continued in NYC, 5 New Jersey counties, and 1 Connecticut county. In addition to these outbreaks, several large epidemics of WNV have occurred in other regions of the world where this disease was absent or rare >5 years ago. Many of the WNV strains isolated during recent outbreaks demonstrate an extremely high degree of homology that strongly suggests widespread circulation of potentially epidemic strains of WNV. The high rates of severe neurologic illness and death among humans, horses, and birds in these outbreaks are unprecedented and unexplained. We review the current status of WNV in the United States.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2001-10-05 PubMed ID: 11595987DOI: 10.1086/322700Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The study examines the emergence and spread of West Nile virus (WNV) in the United States, first documented in 1999 in New York City, and suggests that multiple outbreaks are due to factors such as the global circulation of epidemic strains of the virus, which resulted in severe neurological illness and death in humans and animals.

Introduction to West Nile Virus

  • The research covers the emergence of West Nile encephalitis, specifically focusing on an outbreak that arose in 1999 in New York City (NYC) and two nearby counties.
  • Along with this epidemic, an epizootic, a disease event in an animal population, had been observed among American crows and other bird species within four states.
  • Significantly, this was the first documented case of indigenous transmission of West Nile Virus in the Western Hemisphere.

Expansion of the Epidemic and Epizootic

  • By 2000, the epizootic had spread to twelve states and the District of Columbia, with the epidemic persisting in NYC, five New Jersey counties, and one Connecticut county.
  • Notably, the study also makes mention of other large epidemics of WNV infections taking place in areas where such diseases had been absent or extremely rare five years prior.

Nature of West Nile Virus Strains

  • The paper discusses that many of the WNV strains isolated during these recent outbreaks have an extremely high homology (similarity in sequence of a DNA/RNA molecule).
  • This evidence suggests a widespread circulation of potentially epidemic strains of WNV. This commonality among the strains points to the possibility that a specific strain or strains of the virus are causing these widespread outbreaks.

Increase in Severity and Mortality Rates

  • The research highlights that the severity of the neurologic illness and the rates of death among humans, horses, and birds from these outbreaks are unusually high and are considered unprecedented.
  • The reason for these instances of severe illness and the high death rate, however, remained unexplained and is a critical point of concern for the study.

Summary of the Status of West Nile Virus in the United States

  • Lastly, the paper attempts to provide an update on the current status of WNV in the United States, signalling it as a subject of ongoing concern and underlining the need for further research into understanding the nature, spread, and combatting measures of the virus.

Cite This Article

APA
Marfin AA, Gubler DJ. (2001). West Nile encephalitis: an emerging disease in the United States. Clin Infect Dis, 33(10), 1713-1719. https://doi.org/10.1086/322700

Publication

Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America
ISSN: 1058-4838
NlmUniqueID: 9203213
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 33
Issue: 10
Pages: 1713-1719

Researcher Affiliations

Marfin, A A
  • Division of Vector-Borne Infectious Diseases, National Center for Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, CO 80522-2087, USA. aam0@cdc.gov
Gubler, D J

    MeSH Terms

    • Animals
    • Bird Diseases / epidemiology
    • Bird Diseases / virology
    • Birds / virology
    • Communicable Diseases, Emerging / epidemiology
    • Disease Outbreaks
    • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
    • Horse Diseases / virology
    • Horses / virology
    • Humans
    • Songbirds
    • United States / epidemiology
    • West Nile Fever / epidemiology
    • West Nile Fever / therapy
    • West Nile Fever / transmission
    • West Nile Fever / veterinary
    • West Nile virus / isolation & purification

    Citations

    This article has been cited 63 times.
    1. Rongioletti F, Drago F. Cutaneous Manifestations of Emerging Arbovirus Infections Including West Nile, Dengue, Zika, Chikungunya, Usutu, and Toscana Viruses: A Clinical Overview for Dermatologists. Am J Clin Dermatol 2026 Jan 24;.
      doi: 10.1007/s40257-025-01000-3pubmed: 41579255google scholar: lookup
    2. Le NPK, Singh PP, Trus I, Karniychuk U. West Nile virus vaccine candidates attenuated by dinucleotide enrichment are immunogenic and protective against lethal infection. PLoS Pathog 2025 Oct;21(10):e1013560.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1013560pubmed: 41042818google scholar: lookup
    3. Naveed A, Eertink LG, Wang D, Li F. Lessons Learned from West Nile Virus Infection:Vaccinations in Equines and Their Implications for One Health Approaches. Viruses 2024 May 14;16(5).
      doi: 10.3390/v16050781pubmed: 38793662google scholar: lookup
    4. Prasad R, Sagar SK, Parveen S, Dohare R. Mathematical modeling in perspective of vector-borne viral infections: a review. Beni Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci 2022;11(1):102.
      doi: 10.1186/s43088-022-00282-4pubmed: 36000145google scholar: lookup
    5. Humphreys JM, Pelzel-McCluskey AM, Cohnstaedt LW, McGregor BL, Hanley KA, Hudson AR, Young KI, Peck D, Rodriguez LL, Peters DPC. Integrating Spatiotemporal Epidemiology, Eco-Phylogenetics, and Distributional Ecology to Assess West Nile Disease Risk in Horses. Viruses 2021 Sep 12;13(9).
      doi: 10.3390/v13091811pubmed: 34578392google scholar: lookup
    6. Damiano RF, Guedes BF, de Rocca CC, de Pádua Serafim A, Castro LHM, Munhoz CD, Nitrini R, Filho GB, Miguel EC, Lucchetti G, Forlenza O. Cognitive decline following acute viral infections: literature review and projections for post-COVID-19. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 2022 Feb;272(1):139-154.
      doi: 10.1007/s00406-021-01286-4pubmed: 34173049google scholar: lookup
    7. Song E, Bartley CM, Chow RD, Ngo TT, Jiang R, Zamecnik CR, Dandekar R, Loudermilk RP, Dai Y, Liu F, Sunshine S, Liu J, Wu W, Hawes IA, Alvarenga BD, Huynh T, McAlpine L, Rahman NT, Geng B, Chiarella J, Goldman-Israelow B, Vogels CBF, Grubaugh ND, Casanovas-Massana A, Phinney BS, Salemi M, Alexander JR, Gallego JA, Lencz T, Walsh H, Wapniarski AE, Mohanty S, Lucas C, Klein J, Mao T, Oh J, Ring A, Spudich S, Ko AI, Kleinstein SH, Pak J, DeRisi JL, Iwasaki A, Pleasure SJ, Wilson MR, Farhadian SF. Divergent and self-reactive immune responses in the CNS of COVID-19 patients with neurological symptoms. Cell Rep Med 2021 May 18;2(5):100288.
      doi: 10.1016/j.xcrm.2021.100288pubmed: 33969321google scholar: lookup
    8. Mohammed MN, Yasmin AR, Noraniza MA, Ramanoon SZ, Arshad SS, Bande F, Mohammed HO. Serological evidence of West Nile viral infection in archived swine serum samples from Peninsular Malaysia. J Vet Sci 2021 May;22(3):e29.
      doi: 10.4142/jvs.2021.22.e29pubmed: 33908203google scholar: lookup
    9. Tomar PS, Kumar S, Patel S, Kumar JS. Development and Evaluation of Real-Time Reverse Transcription Recombinase Polymerase Amplification Assay for Rapid and Sensitive Detection of West Nile Virus in Human Clinical Samples. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020;10:619071.
      doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.619071pubmed: 33708642google scholar: lookup
    10. Ali El Hadi Mohamed R, Abdelgadir DM, Bashab HM, Al-Shuraym LA, Sfouq Aleanizy F, Alqahtani FY, Ahmed Al-Keridis L, Mohamed N. First record of West Nile Virus detection inside wild mosquitoes in Khartoum capital of Sudan using PCR. Saudi J Biol Sci 2020 Dec;27(12):3359-3364.
      doi: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2020.08.047pubmed: 33304143google scholar: lookup
    11. Tomar PS, Kumar JS, Patel S, Sharma S. Polymerase Spiral Reaction Assay for Rapid and Real Time Detection of West Nile Virus From Clinical Samples. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2020;10:426.
      doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2020.00426pubmed: 32984063google scholar: lookup
    12. Song E, Bartley CM, Chow RD, Ngo TT, Jiang R, Zamecnik CR, Dandekar R, Loudermilk RP, Dai Y, Liu F, Hawes IA, Alvarenga BD, Huynh T, McAlpine L, Rahman NT, Geng B, Chiarella J, Goldman-Israelow B, Vogels CBF, Grubaugh ND, Casanovas-Massana A, Phinney BS, Salemi M, Alexander J, Gallego JA, Lencz T, Walsh H, Lucas C, Klein J, Mao T, Oh J, Ring A, Spudich S, Ko AI, Kleinstein SH, DeRisi JL, Iwasaki A, Pleasure SJ, Wilson MR, Farhadian SF. Exploratory neuroimmune profiling identifies CNS-specific alterations in COVID-19 patients with neurological involvement. bioRxiv 2020 Dec 9;.
      doi: 10.1101/2020.09.11.293464pubmed: 32935102google scholar: lookup
    13. Smith KH, Tyre AJ, Hamik J, Hayes MJ, Zhou Y, Dai L. Using Climate to Explain and Predict West Nile Virus Risk in Nebraska. Geohealth 2020 Sep;4(9):e2020GH000244.
      doi: 10.1029/2020GH000244pubmed: 32885112google scholar: lookup
    14. Ekwudu O, Devine GJ, Aaskov JG, Frentiu FD. Wolbachia strain wAlbB blocks replication of flaviviruses and alphaviruses in mosquito cell culture. Parasit Vectors 2020 Feb 10;13(1):54.
      doi: 10.1186/s13071-020-3936-3pubmed: 32041638google scholar: lookup
    15. Wang C, Puerta-Guardo H, Biering SB, Glasner DR, Tran EB, Patana M, Gomberg TA, Malvar C, Lo NTN, Espinosa DA, Harris E. Endocytosis of flavivirus NS1 is required for NS1-mediated endothelial hyperpermeability and is abolished by a single N-glycosylation site mutation. PLoS Pathog 2019 Jul;15(7):e1007938.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007938pubmed: 31356638google scholar: lookup
    16. Badawi A, Velummailum R, Ryoo SG, Senthinathan A, Yaghoubi S, Vasileva D, Ostermeier E, Plishka M, Soosaipillai M, Arora P. Prevalence of chronic comorbidities in dengue fever and West Nile virus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2018;13(7):e0200200.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200200pubmed: 29990356google scholar: lookup
    17. Braack L, Gouveia de Almeida AP, Cornel AJ, Swanepoel R, de Jager C. Mosquito-borne arboviruses of African origin: review of key viruses and vectors. Parasit Vectors 2018 Jan 9;11(1):29.
      doi: 10.1186/s13071-017-2559-9pubmed: 29316963google scholar: lookup
    18. Stilianakis NI, Syrris V, Petroliagkis T, Pärt P, Gewehr S, Kalaitzopoulou S, Mourelatos S, Baka A, Pervanidou D, Vontas J, Hadjichristodoulou C. Identification of Climatic Factors Affecting the Epidemiology of Human West Nile Virus Infections in Northern Greece. PLoS One 2016;11(9):e0161510.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161510pubmed: 27631082google scholar: lookup
    19. Musso D, Gubler DJ. Zika Virus. Clin Microbiol Rev 2016 Jul;29(3):487-524.
      doi: 10.1128/CMR.00072-15pubmed: 27029595google scholar: lookup
    20. Schleier Iii JJ, Marshall LA, Davis RS, Peterson RK. A quantitative approach for integrating multiple lines of evidence for the evaluation of environmental health risks. PeerJ 2015;3:e730.
      doi: 10.7717/peerj.730pubmed: 25648367google scholar: lookup
    21. Marlina S, Radzi SF, Lani R, Sieng KC, Rahim NF, Hassan H, Li-Yen C, AbuBakar S, Zandi K. Seroprevalence screening for the West Nile virus in Malaysia's Orang Asli population. Parasit Vectors 2014 Dec 17;7:597.
      doi: 10.1186/s13071-014-0597-0pubmed: 25515627google scholar: lookup
    22. Mlera L, Melik W, Bloom ME. The role of viral persistence in flavivirus biology. Pathog Dis 2014 Jul;71(2):137-63.
      doi: 10.1111/2049-632X.12178pubmed: 24737600google scholar: lookup
    23. Damiens D, Ayrinhac A, Van Bortel W, Versteirt V, Dekoninck W, Hance T. Invasive process and repeated cross-sectional surveys of the mosquito Aedes japonicus japonicus establishment in Belgium. PLoS One 2014;9(4):e89358.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089358pubmed: 24694576google scholar: lookup
    24. Kariwa H, Murata R, Totani M, Yoshii K, Takashima I. Increased pathogenicity of West Nile virus (WNV) by glycosylation of envelope protein and seroprevalence of WNV in wild birds in Far Eastern Russia. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013 Dec 12;10(12):7144-64.
      doi: 10.3390/ijerph10127144pubmed: 24351738google scholar: lookup
    25. Ozdenerol E, Taff GN, Akkus C. Exploring the spatio-temporal dynamics of reservoir hosts, vectors, and human hosts of West Nile virus: a review of the recent literature. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013 Oct 25;10(11):5399-432.
      doi: 10.3390/ijerph10115399pubmed: 24284356google scholar: lookup
    26. Sambri V, Capobianchi MR, Cavrini F, Charrel R, Donoso-Mantke O, Escadafal C, Franco L, Gaibani P, Gould EA, Niedrig M, Papa A, Pierro A, Rossini G, Sanchini A, Tenorio A, Varani S, Vázquez A, Vocale C, Zeller H. Diagnosis of west nile virus human infections: overview and proposal of diagnostic protocols considering the results of external quality assessment studies. Viruses 2013 Sep 25;5(10):2329-48.
      doi: 10.3390/v5102329pubmed: 24072061google scholar: lookup
    27. Obara CJ, Dowd KA, Ledgerwood JE, Pierson TC. Impact of viral attachment factor expression on antibody-mediated neutralization of flaviviruses. Virology 2013 Mar 1;437(1):20-7.
      doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2012.11.016pubmed: 23312596google scholar: lookup
    28. Colpitts TM, Conway MJ, Montgomery RR, Fikrig E. West Nile Virus: biology, transmission, and human infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 2012 Oct;25(4):635-48.
      doi: 10.1128/CMR.00045-12pubmed: 23034323google scholar: lookup
    29. Kemmerly SA. Diagnosis and treatment of west nile infections. Ochsner J 2003 Summer;5(3):16-7.
      pubmed: 21765764
    30. Biedenbender R, Bevilacqua J, Gregg AM, Watson M, Dayan G. Phase II, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter study to investigate the immunogenicity and safety of a West Nile virus vaccine in healthy adults. J Infect Dis 2011 Jan 1;203(1):75-84.
      doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiq003pubmed: 21148499google scholar: lookup
    31. Hollidge BS, González-Scarano F, Soldan SS. Arboviral encephalitides: transmission, emergence, and pathogenesis. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2010 Sep;5(3):428-42.
      doi: 10.1007/s11481-010-9234-7pubmed: 20652430google scholar: lookup
    32. Duan T, Ferguson M, Yuan L, Xu F, Li G. Human Monoclonal Fab Antibodies Against West Nile Virus and its Neutralizing Activity Analyzed in Vitro and in Vivo. J Antivir Antiretrovir 2009 Nov 1;1(1):36-42.
      doi: 10.4172/jaa.1000005pubmed: 20505850google scholar: lookup
    33. Murata R, Eshita Y, Maeda A, Maeda J, Akita S, Tanaka T, Yoshii K, Kariwa H, Umemura T, Takashima I. Glycosylation of the West Nile Virus envelope protein increases in vivo and in vitro viral multiplication in birds. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2010 Apr;82(4):696-704.
      doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.09-0262pubmed: 20348522google scholar: lookup
    34. Barber LM, Schleier JJ 3rd, Peterson RK. Economic cost analysis of West Nile virus outbreak, Sacramento County, California, USA, 2005. Emerg Infect Dis 2010 Mar;16(3):480-6.
      doi: 10.3201/eid1603.090667pubmed: 20202424google scholar: lookup
    35. Sultana H, Foellmer HG, Neelakanta G, Oliphant T, Engle M, Ledizet M, Krishnan MN, Bonafé N, Anthony KG, Marasco WA, Kaplan P, Montgomery RR, Diamond MS, Koski RA, Fikrig E. Fusion loop peptide of the West Nile virus envelope protein is essential for pathogenesis and is recognized by a therapeutic cross-reactive human monoclonal antibody. J Immunol 2009 Jul 1;183(1):650-60.
      doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.0900093pubmed: 19535627google scholar: lookup
    36. Brault AC. Changing patterns of West Nile virus transmission: altered vector competence and host susceptibility. Vet Res 2009 Mar-Apr;40(2):43.
      doi: 10.1051/vetres/2009026pubmed: 19406093google scholar: lookup
    37. Bonafé N, Rininger JA, Chubet RG, Foellmer HG, Fader S, Anderson JF, Bushmich SL, Anthony K, Ledizet M, Fikrig E, Koski RA, Kaplan P. A recombinant West Nile virus envelope protein vaccine candidate produced in Spodoptera frugiperda expresSF+ cells. Vaccine 2009 Jan 7;27(2):213-22.
      doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.10.046pubmed: 18996430google scholar: lookup
    38. Liu J, Liu B, Cao Z, Inoue S, Morita K, Tian K, Zhu Q, Gao GF. Characterization and application of monoclonal antibodies specific to West Nile virus envelope protein. J Virol Methods 2008 Dec;154(1-2):20-6.
      doi: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2008.09.019pubmed: 18948139google scholar: lookup
    39. Conly J, Johnston B. Why the West in West Nile virus infections?. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 2007 Sep;18(5):285-8.
      doi: 10.1155/2007/704157pubmed: 18923727google scholar: lookup
    40. Ndiva Mongoh M, Hearne R, Dyer NW, Khaitsa ML. The economic impact of West Nile virus infection in horses in the North Dakota equine industry in 2002. Trop Anim Health Prod 2008 Jan;40(1):69-76.
      doi: 10.1007/s11250-007-9055-8pubmed: 18551781google scholar: lookup
    41. Vitek CJ, Richards SL, Mores CN, Day JF, Lord CC. Arbovirus transmission by Culex nigripalpus in Florida, 2005. J Med Entomol 2008 May;45(3):483-93.
      doi: 10.1603/0022-2585(2008)45[483:atbcni]2.0.co;2pubmed: 18533444google scholar: lookup
    42. Nicolle L. Experiencing West Nile virus. Can J Infect Dis 2003 Mar;14(2):75-6.
      doi: 10.1155/2003/480469pubmed: 18159426google scholar: lookup
    43. Schepp-Berglind J, Luo M, Wang D, Wicker JA, Raja NU, Hoel BD, Holman DH, Barrett AD, Dong JY. Complex adenovirus-mediated expression of West Nile virus C, PreM, E, and NS1 proteins induces both humoral and cellular immune responses. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007 Sep;14(9):1117-26.
      doi: 10.1128/CVI.00070-07pubmed: 17634508google scholar: lookup
    44. Tarsitano E. Interaction between the environment and animals in urban settings: integrated and participatory planning. Environ Manage 2006 Nov;38(5):799-809.
      doi: 10.1007/s00267-005-0148-8pubmed: 16955234google scholar: lookup
    45. Mongoh MN, Khaitsa ML, Dyer NW. Environmental and ecological determinants of West Nile virus occurrence in horses in North Dakota, 2002. Epidemiol Infect 2007 Jan;135(1):57-66.
      doi: 10.1017/S0950268806006662pubmed: 16753077google scholar: lookup
    46. Monath TP, Liu J, Kanesa-Thasan N, Myers GA, Nichols R, Deary A, McCarthy K, Johnson C, Ermak T, Shin S, Arroyo J, Guirakhoo F, Kennedy JS, Ennis FA, Green S, Bedford P. A live, attenuated recombinant West Nile virus vaccine. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006 Apr 25;103(17):6694-9.
      doi: 10.1073/pnas.0601932103pubmed: 16617103google scholar: lookup
    47. Jayakeerthi RS, Potula RV, Srinivasan S, Badrinath S. Shell Vial Culture assay for the rapid diagnosis of Japanese encephalitis, West Nile and Dengue-2 viral encephalitis. Virol J 2006 Jan 6;3:2.
      doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-3-2pubmed: 16398932google scholar: lookup
    48. Gorson KC. Approach to neuromuscular disorders in the intensive care unit. Neurocrit Care 2005;3(3):195-212.
      doi: 10.1385/NCC:3:3:195pubmed: 16377830google scholar: lookup
    49. Briese T, Bernard KA. West Nile virus--an old virus learning new tricks?. J Neurovirol 2005 Oct;11(5):469-75.
      doi: 10.1080/13550280500187617pubmed: 16287688google scholar: lookup
    50. Gould LH, Sui J, Foellmer H, Oliphant T, Wang T, Ledizet M, Murakami A, Noonan K, Lambeth C, Kar K, Anderson JF, de Silva AM, Diamond MS, Koski RA, Marasco WA, Fikrig E. Protective and therapeutic capacity of human single-chain Fv-Fc fusion proteins against West Nile virus. J Virol 2005 Dec;79(23):14606-13.
      doi: 10.1128/JVI.79.23.14606-14613.2005pubmed: 16282460google scholar: lookup
    51. Tilley PA, Walle R, Chow A, Jayaraman GC, Fonseca K, Drebot MA, Preiksaitis J, Fox J. Clinical utility of commercial enzyme immunoassays during the inaugural season of West Nile virus activity, Alberta, Canada. J Clin Microbiol 2005 Sep;43(9):4691-5.
      doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.9.4691-4695.2005pubmed: 16145128google scholar: lookup
    52. Prince HE, Tobler LH, Lapé-Nixon M, Foster GA, Stramer SL, Busch MP. Development and persistence of West Nile virus-specific immunoglobulin M (IgM), IgA, and IgG in viremic blood donors. J Clin Microbiol 2005 Sep;43(9):4316-20.
      doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.9.4316-4320.2005pubmed: 16145071google scholar: lookup
    53. Huang CY, Silengo SJ, Whiteman MC, Kinney RM. Chimeric dengue 2 PDK-53/West Nile NY99 viruses retain the phenotypic attenuation markers of the candidate PDK-53 vaccine virus and protect mice against lethal challenge with West Nile virus. J Virol 2005 Jun;79(12):7300-10.
      doi: 10.1128/JVI.79.12.7300-7310.2005pubmed: 15919884google scholar: lookup
    54. Granwehr BP, Li L, Davis CT, Beasley DW, Barrett AD. Characterization of a West Nile virus isolate from a human on the Gulf Coast of Texas. J Clin Microbiol 2004 Nov;42(11):5375-7.
      doi: 10.1128/JCM.42.11.5375-5377.2004pubmed: 15528747google scholar: lookup
    55. Arroyo J, Miller C, Catalan J, Myers GA, Ratterree MS, Trent DW, Monath TP. ChimeriVax-West Nile virus live-attenuated vaccine: preclinical evaluation of safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy. J Virol 2004 Nov;78(22):12497-507.
      doi: 10.1128/JVI.78.22.12497-12507.2004pubmed: 15507637google scholar: lookup
    56. Zohrabian A, Meltzer MI, Ratard R, Billah K, Molinari NA, Roy K, Scott RD 2nd, Petersen LR. West Nile virus economic impact, Louisiana, 2002. Emerg Infect Dis 2004 Oct;10(10):1736-44.
      doi: 10.3201/eid1010.030925pubmed: 15504258google scholar: lookup
    57. Hogrefe WR, Moore R, Lape-Nixon M, Wagner M, Prince HE. Performance of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays using a West Nile virus recombinant antigen (preM/E) for detection of West Nile virus- and other flavivirus-specific antibodies. J Clin Microbiol 2004 Oct;42(10):4641-8.
      doi: 10.1128/JCM.42.10.4641-4648.2004pubmed: 15472323google scholar: lookup
    58. Gould LH, Fikrig E. West Nile virus: a growing concern?. J Clin Invest 2004 Apr;113(8):1102-7.
      doi: 10.1172/JCI21623pubmed: 15085186google scholar: lookup
    59. Prince HE, Lape'-Nixon M, Moore RJ, Hogrefe WR. Utility of the focus technologies west nile virus immunoglobulin M capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for testing cerebrospinal fluid. J Clin Microbiol 2004 Jan;42(1):12-5.
      doi: 10.1128/JCM.42.1.12-15.2004pubmed: 14715725google scholar: lookup
    60. Prince HE, Hogrefe WR. Detection of West Nile virus (WNV)-specific immunoglobulin M in a reference laboratory setting during the 2002 WNV season in the United States. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2003 Sep;10(5):764-8.
      doi: 10.1128/cdli.10.5.764-768.2003pubmed: 12965901google scholar: lookup
    61. Prince HE, Hogrefe WR. Performance characteristics of an in-house assay system used to detect West Nile Virus (WNV)-specific immunoglobulin M during the 2001 WNV season in the United States. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol 2003 Jan;10(1):177-9.
      doi: 10.1128/cdli.10.1.177-179.2003pubmed: 12522058google scholar: lookup
    62. Roche JP. Print media coverage of risk-risk tradeoffs associated with West Nile encephalitis and pesticide spraying. J Urban Health 2002 Dec;79(4):482-90.
      doi: 10.1093/jurban/79.4.482pubmed: 12468668google scholar: lookup
    63. Cardosa MJ, Wang SM, Sum MS, Tio PH. Antibodies against prM protein distinguish between previous infection with dengue and Japanese encephalitis viruses. BMC Microbiol 2002 May 5;2:9.
      doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-2-9pubmed: 12019028google scholar: lookup
    Subscribe to our newsletter
    Join 99,824 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.