FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Anim Cogn / Why wait to mark? Possible reasons behind latency from olfac...
Animal cognition2022; 25(6); 1443-1452; doi: 10.1007/s10071-022-01625-5

Why wait to mark? Possible reasons behind latency from olfactory exploration to overmarking in four African equid species.

Abstract: Whereas most studies on overmarking in mammals analysed the rate of overmarking, that those investigate time between exploration of an olfactory stimulus and the response to it remain less common, with inconsistent results. We examined the latency in time between elimination by the sender and sniffing by the receiver, and from sniffing and overmarking, in four captive African equid species to explore differences among species, and among age and sex classes. We investigated these latency time periods in light of three potential hypotheses explaining overmarking behaviour in equids: social bonds, group cohesion, and intrasexual competition. Analysing 1684 events of sniffing and 719 of overmarking among 130 individuals, we found that (i) the time from elimination to overmarking was shorter among female friends and in parent-offspring dyads, proving support to the social bond hypothesis; (ii) intraspecific differences in time periods do not reflect the social organisation of species, thus not supporting the group cohesion hypothesis; (iii) males were more attracted to elimination of conspecifics than females, and female's eliminations were inspected longer, in line with the sexual competition hypothesis and/or reproductive behaviour. In addition, we found that the younger foals came to sniff eliminations faster than older ones, and in larger groups foals devoted longer time to sniffing the elimination before overmarking. We concluded that examination of the elimination could be driven by motivations other than the decision to overmark. Whereas overmarking serves to express bonds to a familiar individual, the latency of overmarking reflects more reproductive interests.
© 2022. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2022-05-12 PubMed ID: 35554766PubMed Central: 2391181DOI: 10.1007/s10071-022-01625-5Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The researchers observed four different African equid species, documenting how long they took to sniff and overmark the waste of other animals in order to understand the motivations behind their overmarking behavior. They found that the social bonds between animals, group cohesion, and competition between members of the same sex all influence this behavior.

Methodology

  • The study involved inspection of four African equid species kept in captivity.
  • The researchers analyzed the span of time between the elimination of waste by a “sender” animal and its subsequent exploration by a “receiver” animal.
  • They also scrutinized the time it took for overmarking, a behavior in which one individual marks over the scent of another, to occur following the exploration of the waste.
  • The researchers had three hypotheses: overmarking could be an expression of social bonds; it could foster group cohesion; or it signifies intrasexual competition.
  • In total, 1684 sniffing events and 719 overmarking episodes among 130 individuals were taken into consideration.

Findings

  • The time from elimination to overmarking was found to be shorter in instances where there was a relationship of friendship between females, or parent-offspring bonds, thereby supporting the social bond hypothesis.
  • The variance in the time frame within the same species did not correlate with the social structure of the species, challenging the premise of the group cohesion hypothesis.
  • Males were found to be more attracted to the waste of same species individuals compared to females. Moreover, they spent a longer duration inspecting female waste, which validated the sexual competition hypothesis and/or indicated reproductive interest.
  • The researchers also noticed that younger foals were quicker to approach eliminations for sniffing while in larger groups, these foals took more time for sniffing prior to overmarking.

Conclusion

  • The researchers concluded that motivations for examining waste may not solely be connected to deciding whether or not to overmark.
  • While overmarking does seem to express familiar bonds, the timing of such overmarking shows a closer link to reproductive interests.

Cite This Article

APA
Pluháček J, Tučková V, Šárová R, King SRB. (2022). Why wait to mark? Possible reasons behind latency from olfactory exploration to overmarking in four African equid species. Anim Cogn, 25(6), 1443-1452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-022-01625-5

Publication

Animal cognition
ISSN: 1435-9456
NlmUniqueID: 9814573
Country: Germany
Language: English
Volume: 25
Issue: 6
Pages: 1443-1452

Researcher Affiliations

Pluháček, Jan
  • Department of Ethology, Institute of Animal Science, Přátelství 815, Uhříněves, 10400, Prague, Czech Republic. janpluhacek@seznam.cz.
  • Ostrava Zoo, Michálkovická 2081/197, 71000, Ostrava, Czech Republic. janpluhacek@seznam.cz.
  • Departement of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science, University of Ostrava, Chittussiho 10, 71000, Ostrava, Czech Republic. janpluhacek@seznam.cz.
Tučková, Vladimíra
  • Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 1760, 37005, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
Šárová, Radka
  • Department of Ethology, Institute of Animal Science, Přátelství 815, Uhříněves, 10400, Prague, Czech Republic.
King, Sarah R B
  • Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Warner College of Natural Resources, Colorado State University, Campus Delivery 1499, Fort Collins, USA.

MeSH Terms

  • Male
  • Horses
  • Female
  • Animals
  • Smell / physiology
  • Mammals

Grant Funding

  • MZE-RO0718 / Ministerstvo Zemu011bdu011blstvu00ed
  • 2011/008 / Jihou010desku00e1 Univerzita v u010cesku00fdch Budu011bjovicu00edch

References

This article includes 51 references
  1. Altmann J. Observational study of behavior: sampling methods.. Behaviour 1974;49(3):227-67.
    pubmed: 4597405doi: 10.1163/156853974X00534google scholar: lookup
  2. Black-Décima P, Santana M. Olfactory communication and counter-marking in brown brocket deer Mazama gouazoubira. Acta Theriol 56:179–187.
    doi: 10.1007/s13364-010-0017-6google scholar: lookup
  3. Blank D, Ruckstuhl K, Yang WK. The economics of scent marking with urine and feces in goitered gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa). Mammal Res 60:51–60.
    doi: 10.1007/s13364-014-0201-1google scholar: lookup
  4. Boyd L, Kasman L. The marking behavior of male Przewalski’s horses. In: Duvall D, Muller-Schwarze D, Silverstein RM (eds) Chemical signals in vertebrates, ecology, evolution, and comparative biology, vol IV. Plenum Press, New York, pp 623–626.
    doi: 10.1007/978-1-4613-2235-1_50google scholar: lookup
  5. Brashares JS, Arcese P. Scent marking in a territorial African antelope: II. The economics of marking with faeces.. Anim Behav 1999 Jan;57(1):11-17.
    pubmed: 10053067doi: 10.1006/anbe.1998.0942google scholar: lookup
  6. Brown RE, Macdonald DW. Social odours in mammals, vol 2. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
  7. Cinková I, Policht R. Discrimination of familiarity and sex from chemical cues in the dung by wild southern white rhinoceros.. Anim Cogn 2015 Jan;18(1):385-92.
    pubmed: 25273823doi: 10.1007/s10071-014-0810-8google scholar: lookup
  8. Dreier S, van Zweden JS, D'Ettorre P. Long-term memory of individual identity in ant queens.. Biol Lett 2007 Oct 22;3(5):459-62.
    pubmed: 17594958pmc: 2391181doi: 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0224google scholar: lookup
  9. Ferkin MH, Pierce AA. Perspectives on over-marking: is it good to be on top?. J Ethol 25:107–116.
    doi: 10.1007/s10164-006-0012-1google scholar: lookup
  10. Ferkin MH, Leonard ST, Bartos K, Schmick MK. Meadow voles and prairie voles differ in the length of time they prefer the top-scent donor of an over-mark. Ethology 107:1099–1114.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0310.2001.00745.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  11. Ferkin MH, Lee DN, Leonard ST. The reproductive state of female voles affects their scent marking behavior and the responses of male conspecifics to such marks. Ethology 110:257–272.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.2004.00961.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  12. Font E, Barbosa D, Sampedro C, Carazo P. Social behavior, chemical communication, and adult neurogenesis: studies of scent mark function in Podarcis wall lizards.. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2012 May 15;177(1):9-17.
    pubmed: 22406138doi: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2012.02.015google scholar: lookup
  13. Ghosal R, Seshagiri PB, Sukumar R. Dung as a potential medium for inter-sexual chemical signaling in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus). Behav Proc 91:15–21.
    doi: 10.1016/j.beproc.2012.04.010google scholar: lookup
  14. Ginsberg JR. The ecology of female behaviour and male reproductive success in the Grevy’s zebra, Equus grevyi. In: Jewell PA, Maloiy GMO (eds) Symposia of the zoological society of London. Clarendon Press, pp 89–110.
  15. Heymann EW. Sex differences in olfactory communication in a primate, the moustached tamarin, Saguinus mystax (Callitrichinae). Behav Ecol Sociobiol 43:37–45.
    doi: 10.1007/s002650050464google scholar: lookup
  16. Hothersall B, Harris P, Sortoft L, Nicol CJ. Discrimination between conspecific odour samples in the horse (Equus caballus). Appl Anim Behav Sci 126:37–44.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2010.05.002google scholar: lookup
  17. Jezierski T, Jaworski Z, Sobczynska M, Kaminska B, Gorecka-Bruzda A, Walczak M. Excreta-mediated olfactory communication in Konik stallions: a preliminary study. J Vet Behav Clin Appl Res 10:353–364.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2015.03.010google scholar: lookup
  18. Johnson RP. Scent marking in mammals. Anim Behav 21:521–535.
    doi: 10.1016/S0003-3472(73)80012-0google scholar: lookup
  19. Johnston RE, Chiang G, Tung C. The information in scent over-marks of golden hamsters. Anim Behav 48:323–330.
    doi: 10.1006/anbe.1994.1245google scholar: lookup
  20. Jordan NR. Scent-marking investment is determined by sex and breeding status in meerkats. Anim Behav 74:531–540.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.12.015google scholar: lookup
  21. Jordan NR, Mwanguhya F, Furrer RD, Kyabulima S, Ruedi P, Cant MA. Scent marking in wild banded mongooses: 2. Intrasexual overmarking and competition between males. Anim Behav 81:43–50.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.07.009google scholar: lookup
  22. Joubert E. The social organisation and associated behaviour in the Hartmann zebra Equus zebra hartmannae. Madoqua Ser I 6:17–56.
  23. Kappeler PM. To whom it may concern: the transmission and function of chemical signals in Lemur catta. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 42:411–421.
    doi: 10.1007/s002650050455google scholar: lookup
  24. Kimura R. Relationship of the type of social organization to scent-marking and mutual-grromin behaviour in Grevy’s (Equus grevyi) and Grant’s zebra (Equus burchelli bohmi). J Equi Sci 11:91–98.
    doi: 10.1294/jes.11.91google scholar: lookup
  25. Kimura R. Volatile substances in feces, urine and urine/marked feces of feral horses. Can J Anim Sci 81:411–420.
    doi: 10.4141/A00-068google scholar: lookup
  26. King SRB, Gurnell J. Scent-marking behaviour by stallion: an assessment of function in a reintroduced population of Przewalski horses (Equus ferus przewalskii). J Zool 272:30–36.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00243.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  27. Klingel H. The social organization and population ecology of the plains zebra (Equus quagga). Zool Afr 4:249–263.
    doi: 10.1080/00445096.1969.11447374google scholar: lookup
  28. Klingel H. A comparison of the social behaviour of the Equidae. In: Geist V, Walther F (eds) The Papers of an International Symposium on The Behaviour of Ungulates and its relation to management. IUCN, pp 124–132.
  29. Klingel H. Observations on social organization and behaviour of African and Asiatic wild asses (Equus africanus and E. hemionus).. Z Tierpsychol 1977 Jul;44(3):323-31.
    pubmed: 930444doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0310.1977.tb00999.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  30. Krueger K, Flauger B. Olfactory recognition of individual competitors by means of faeces in horse (Equus caballus).. Anim Cogn 2011 Mar;14(2):245-57.
    pubmed: 21132447doi: 10.1007/s10071-010-0358-1google scholar: lookup
  31. Leclaire S, Strandh M, Mardon J, Westerdahl H, Bonadonna F. Odour-based discrimination of similarity at the major histocompatibility complex in birds. Proc Roy Soc B .
    doi: 10.1098/rspb.2016.2466google scholar: lookup
  32. Linklater WL, Mayer K, Swaisgood RR. Chemical signals of age, sex and identity in black rhinoceros. Anim Behav 85:671–677.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.12.034google scholar: lookup
  33. Marinier SL, Alexander AJ, Waring GH. Flehmen behaviour in the domestic horse: Discrimination of conspecific odours. Appl Anim Behav Sci 19:227–237.
    doi: 10.1016/0168-1591(88)90003-2google scholar: lookup
  34. Marneweck C, Jurgens A, Shrader AM. Dung odours signal sex, age, territorial and oestrous state in white rhinos. Proc Roy Soc B .
    doi: 10.1098/rspb.2016.2376google scholar: lookup
  35. Marneweck C, Jurgens A, Shrader AM. The role of middens in white rhino olfactory communication. Anim Behav 140:7–18.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.04.001google scholar: lookup
  36. Marneweck C, Jürgens A, Shrader AM. The first report of urine overmarking of pro-oestrus female dung by a male white rhino. Afr Zool 54:175–179.
    doi: 10.1080/15627020.2019.1635911google scholar: lookup
  37. Meyer JM, Goodwin TE, Schulte BA. Intrasexual chemical communication and social responses of captive female African elephants, Loxodonta africana. Anim Behav 76:163–174.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.12.019google scholar: lookup
  38. Moehlman PD. The odd-toed ungulates: order Perrisodactyla. In: Brown RE, Macdonald DW (eds) Social odours in mammals, vol 2. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 531–549.
  39. Penzhorn BL. Observations on mortality of free-ranging Cape Mountain zebras Equus zebra zebra. S Afr J Wild Res 14:89–90.
  40. Pluháček J, Bartoš L, Doležalová M, Bartošová-Víchová J. Sex of the foetus determines the time of weaning of the previous offspring of captive plains zebra (Equus burchelli). Appl Anim Behav Sci 105:192–204.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.05.019google scholar: lookup
  41. Pluháček J, Tučková V, King SRB. Overmarking behaviour of zebra males: no scent masking, but a group cohesion function across three species. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 73:137.
    doi: 10.1007/s00265-019-2744-2google scholar: lookup
  42. Pluháček J, Tučková V, King SRB, Šárová R. Test of four hypotheses to explain the function of overmarking in foals of four equid species.. Anim Cogn 2019 Mar;22(2):231-241.
    pubmed: 30701350doi: 10.1007/s10071-019-01239-4google scholar: lookup
  43. Pluháček J, Tučková V, Šárová R, King SRB. Effect of social organisation on interspecific differences in overmarking behaviour of foals in African equids.. Anim Cogn 2020 Jan;23(1):131-140.
    pubmed: 31728806doi: 10.1007/s10071-019-01323-9google scholar: lookup
  44. Ralls K. Mammalian scent marking.. Science 1971 Feb 5;171(3970):443-9.
    pubmed: 4992621doi: 10.1126/science.171.3970.443google scholar: lookup
  45. Steiner CC, Ryder OA. Molecular phylogeny and evolution of the Perissodactyla. Zool J Lin Soc 163:1289–1303.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00752.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  46. Steiner CC, Mitelberg A, Tursi R, Ryder OA. Molecular phylogeny of extant equids and effects of ancestral polymorphism in resolving species-level phylogenies. Mol Phyl Evol 65:573–581.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ympev.2012.07.010google scholar: lookup
  47. Tučková V, Šárová R, Bartošová J, King SRB, Pluháček J. Overmarking by adult females in four equid species: social bonds and group cohesion. J Zool 306:180–188.
    doi: 10.1111/jzo.12578google scholar: lookup
  48. Turner JW, Perkins A, Kirkpatrick JF. Elimination marking behavior in feral horses. Can J Zool 59:1561–1566.
    doi: 10.1139/z81-212google scholar: lookup
  49. Tyler SJ. The behaviour and social organisation of the New Forest ponies. Anim Behav Monographs 5:85–196.
  50. Wolff JO, Mech SG, Thomas SA. Scent marking in female prairie voles: a test of alternative hypotheses. Ethol 108:483–494.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0310.2002.00788.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  51. Wronski T, Apio A, Plath M, Ziege M. Sex difference in the communicatory significance of localized defecation sites in Arabian gazelles (Gazella arabica). J Ethol 31:129–140.
    doi: 10.1007/s10164-012-0357-6google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,357 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.