FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Antibiotics (Basel) / A Laboratory Protocol for Routine Therapeutic Drug Monitorin...
Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland)2025; 14(4); doi: 10.3390/antibiotics14040390

A Laboratory Protocol for Routine Therapeutic Drug Monitoring of Beta-Lactams Antimicrobials in Horses and Dogs.

Abstract: Background: Although antibiotic resistance is a well-known issue in veterinary medicine, studies proposing real-time therapeutic monitoring (TDM) are lacking. The objective of the present study was to develop a simple and rapid protocol for the real-time therapeutic monitoring of antibiotics in horses and dogs. Methods: A reliable TDM protocol should encompass guidelines for the definition of plasma/serum collection time points, sample management by the clinical staff, transportation to the laboratory, and the availability of robust and swift analytical technologies. Ampicillin and sulbactam were quantified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in the plasma or serum of animals treated with ampicillin alone or combined with sulbactam. Results: The method was successfully applied to samples collected from animals hospitalized in our veterinary hospital and proved helpful in understanding the pharmacokinetics of this antibiotic in critically ill patients. Conclusions: Combined with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) data, this approach enables PK/PD evaluations to support the development of personalized therapeutic strategies and optimized dosing regimens for animals.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-04-09 PubMed ID: 40298550PubMed Central: PMC12024143DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics14040390Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research article explains the development of a routine protocol for monitoring the therapeutic effects of beta-lactam antimicrobials in horses and dogs in order to better manage antibiotic resistance.

Objective of the Study

  • The study sought to develop a quick and easy protocol for real-time therapeutic monitoring of antibiotics in horses and dogs. It aimed to ensure that the protocol included guidelines for the collection of plasma/serum, its management by clinical staff, transportation to the lab, and the application of robust, quick analytical technologies. The researchers believed this would help in addressing the known issue of antibiotic resistance in veterinary medicine where available research is considered insufficient.

Methodology

  • In carrying out the study, the antibiotics ampicillin and sulbactam were quantified through liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in either the plasma or serum of the animals. This was performed on animals that had been treated with just ampicillin or a combination of ampicillin and sulbactam.

Results

  • The protocol that was developed proved effective when it was applied to samples collected from animals in the researchers’ veterinary hospital. It provided valuable understanding of how this antibiotic, particularly in severely ill animals, behaves pharmacokinetically. This provides a platform for pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) evaluations, supporting the development of optimized dosing regimens and personalized therapeutic strategies.

Implications

  • This research protocol shows promise for improving veterinary practice. Enabling real-time monitoring of antibiotic administration, it allows for more effective management of antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, it assists in understanding the pharmacokinetics of these antibiotics in patients, leading to improved patient-specific treatment strategies.

Cite This Article

APA
Bardhi A, Lanci A, Mannini A, Castagnetti C, Barbarossa A. (2025). A Laboratory Protocol for Routine Therapeutic Drug Monitoring of Beta-Lactams Antimicrobials in Horses and Dogs. Antibiotics (Basel), 14(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14040390

Publication

Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland)
ISSN: 2079-6382
NlmUniqueID: 101637404
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 14
Issue: 4

Researcher Affiliations

Bardhi, Anisa
  • Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40064 Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy.
Lanci, Aliai
  • Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40064 Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy.
Mannini, Aurora
  • Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40064 Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy.
Castagnetti, Carolina
  • Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40064 Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy.
Barbarossa, Andrea
  • Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, 40064 Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy.
  • Health Sciences and Technologies-Interdepartmental Centre for Industrial Research (CIRI-SDV), University of Bologna, 40064 Ozzano dell'Emilia, Bologna, Italy.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

This article includes 61 references
  1. Cattaneo D, Gervasoni C, Corona A. The Issue of Pharmacokinetic-Driven Drug-Drug Interactions of Antibiotics: A Narrative Review. Antibiotics 2022;11:1410.
    doi: 10.3390/antibiotics11101410pmc: PMC9598487pubmed: 36290068google scholar: lookup
  2. Calvo M, Stefani S, Migliorisi G. Bacterial Infections in Intensive Care Units: Epidemiological and Microbiological Aspects. Antibiotics 2024;13:238.
    doi: 10.3390/antibiotics13030238pmc: PMC10967584pubmed: 38534673google scholar: lookup
  3. Aslam B, Khurshid M, Arshad MI, Muzammil S, Rasool M, Yasmeen N, Shah T, Chaudhry TH, Rasool MH, Shahid A. Antibiotic Resistance: One Health One World Outlook. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol. 2021;11:771510.
    doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.771510pmc: PMC8656695pubmed: 34900756google scholar: lookup
  4. Caneschi A, Bardhi A, Barbarossa A, Zaghini A. The Use of Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance in Veterinary Medicine, a Complex Phenomenon: A Narrative Review. Antibiotics 2023;12:487.
    doi: 10.3390/antibiotics12030487pmc: PMC10044628pubmed: 36978354google scholar: lookup
  5. Lim JM, Singh SR, Duong MC, Legido-Quigley H, Hsu LY, Tam CC. Impact of National Interventions to Promote Responsible Antibiotic Use: A Systematic Review. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2020;75:14–29.
    doi: 10.1093/jac/dkz348pmc: PMC6910191pubmed: 31834401google scholar: lookup
  6. Veringa A, Sturkenboom MGG, Dekkers BGJ, Koster RA, Roberts JA, Peloquin CA, Touw DJ, Alffenaar J-WC. LC-MS/MS for Therapeutic Drug Monitoring of Anti-Infective Drugs. TrAC Trends Anal. Chem. 2016;84:34–40.
    doi: 10.1016/j.trac.2015.11.026google scholar: lookup
  7. Kang J-S, Lee M-H. Overview of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. Korean J. Intern. Med. 2009;24:1–10.
    doi: 10.3904/kjim.2009.24.1.1pmc: PMC2687654pubmed: 19270474google scholar: lookup
  8. Fang Z, Zhang H, Guo J, Guo J. Overview of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring and Clinical Practice. Talanta 2024;266:124996.
    doi: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.124996pubmed: 37562225google scholar: lookup
  9. Martin-Loeches I. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM) in Real-Time: A Need for the Present Future. Expert Rev. Anti-Infect. Ther. 2022;20:1245–1247.
    doi: 10.1080/14787210.2022.2110070pubmed: 35921491google scholar: lookup
  10. Voulgaridou G, Paraskeva T, Ragia G, Atzemian N, Portokallidou K, Kolios G, Arvanitidis K, Manolopoulos VG. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM) Implementation in Public Hospitals in Greece in 2003 and 2021: A Comparative Analysis of TDM Evolution over the Years. Pharmaceutics 2023;15:2181.
    doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15092181pmc: PMC10535589pubmed: 37765152google scholar: lookup
  11. Junaid T, Wu X, Thanukrishnan H, Venkataramanan R. Chapter 30-Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. In: Thomas D., editor. Clinical Pharmacy Education, Practice and Research. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2019. pp. 425–436.
  12. Ranjan G, Jamal F, Das S, Gupta V. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring: A Review. J. Drug Deliv. Ther. 2023;13:134–136.
    doi: 10.22270/jddt.v13i10.6251google scholar: lookup
  13. Gross AS. Best Practice in Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2001;52:5S–10S.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2125.2001.00770.xpmc: PMC2014621pubmed: 11564048google scholar: lookup
  14. Märtson A-G, Sturkenboom MGG, Stojanova J, Cattaneo D, Hope W, Marriott D, Patanwala AE, Peloquin CA, Wicha SG, van der Werf TS. How to Design a Study to Evaluate Therapeutic Drug Monitoring in Infectious Diseases?. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 2020;26:1008–1016.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2020.03.008pubmed: 32205294google scholar: lookup
  15. . EMA ICH M10 on Bioanalytical Method Validation-Scientific Guideline. [(accessed on 24 October 2024)].
  16. . FDA Q2(R2) Guideline on Validation of Analytical Procedures Guidance for Industry. [(accessed on 24 October 2024)].
  17. Wilhelm AJ, den Burger JCG, Swart EL. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring by Dried Blood Spot: Progress to Date and Future Directions. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2014;53:961–973.
    doi: 10.1007/s40262-014-0177-7pmc: PMC4213377pubmed: 25204403google scholar: lookup
  18. Avataneo V, D’Avolio A, Cusato J, Cantù M, De Nicolò A. LC-MS Application for Therapeutic Drug Monitoring in Alternative Matrices. J. Pharm. Biomed. Anal. 2019;166:40–51.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jpba.2018.12.040pubmed: 30609393google scholar: lookup
  19. Shipkova M, Svinarov D. LC–MS/MS as a Tool for TDM Services: Where Are We?. Clin. Biochem. 2016;49:1009–1023.
    doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2016.05.001pubmed: 27163969google scholar: lookup
  20. Seger C, Salzmann L. After Another Decade: LC-MS/MS Became Routine in Clinical Diagnostics. Clin. Biochem. 2020;82:2–11.
    doi: 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2020.03.004pubmed: 32188572google scholar: lookup
  21. Thomas SN, French D, Jannetto PJ, Rappold BA, Clarke WA. Liquid Chromatography–Tandem Mass Spectrometry for Clinical Diagnostics. Nat. Rev. Methods Primers 2022;2:96.
    doi: 10.1038/s43586-022-00175-xpmc: PMC9735147pubmed: 36532107google scholar: lookup
  22. Gaspar VP, Ibrahim S, Zahedi RP, Borchers CH. Utility, Promise, and Limitations of Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry-Based Therapeutic Drug Monitoring in Precision Medicine. J. Mass Spectrom. 2021;56:e4788.
    doi: 10.1002/jms.4788pmc: PMC8597589pubmed: 34738286google scholar: lookup
  23. Rahman MM, Alam Tumpa MA, Zehravi M, Sarker MT, Yamin M, Islam MR, Harun-Or-Rashid M, Ahmed M, Ramproshad S, Mondal B. An Overview of Antimicrobial Stewardship Optimization: The Use of Antibiotics in Humans and Animals to Prevent Resistance. Antibiotics 2022;11:667.
    doi: 10.3390/antibiotics11050667pmc: PMC9137991pubmed: 35625311google scholar: lookup
  24. Kondampati KD, Saini SPS, Sidhu PK, Anand A, Kumar D, Beesam S, Bedi JS, Kaur R, Bhardwaj R. Pharmacokinetic-Pharmacodynamic Study of Ampicillin-Cloxacillin Combination in Indian Thoroughbred Horses (Equus Caballus) and Safety Evaluation of the Computed Dosage Regimen. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2022;115:104020.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2022.104020pubmed: 35605881google scholar: lookup
  25. Monaghan K, Labato M, Papich M. Ampicillin Pharmacokinetics in Azotemic and Healthy Dogs. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2021;35:987–992.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.16026pmc: PMC7995374pubmed: 33474795google scholar: lookup
  26. Bardhi A, Gazzotti T, Pagliuca G, Mari G, Barbarossa A. Validation of a Single Liquid Chromatography-tandem Mass Spectrometry Approach for Oxytetracycline Determination in Bull Plasma, Seminal Plasma and Urine. Drug Test. Anal. 2022;14:1338–1342.
    doi: 10.1002/dta.3246pmc: PMC9544438pubmed: 35195370google scholar: lookup
  27. Barbarossa A, Bardhi A, Gazzotti T, Mari G, Pagliuca G. A Single LC-MS/MS Validated Method for Tulathromycin Quantification in Plasma, Seminal Plasma, and Urine to Be Applied in a Pharmacokinetic Study in Bull. Drug Test. Anal. 2022;14:1525–1531.
    doi: 10.1002/dta.3270pmc: PMC9544005pubmed: 35385608google scholar: lookup
  28. Bardhi A, Romano JE, Pagliuca G, Caneschi A, Barbarossa A. Florfenicol and Florfenicol Amine Quantification in Bull Serum and Seminal Plasma by a Single Validated UHPLC-MS/MS Method. Vet. Med. Int. 2023;2023:6692920.
    doi: 10.1155/2023/6692920pmc: PMC10239301pubmed: 37273507google scholar: lookup
  29. Van den Hoven R, Hierweck B, Dobretsberger M, Ensink JM, Meijer LA. Intramuscular Dosing Strategy for Ampicillin Sodium in Horses, Based on Its Distribution into Tissue Chambers before and after Induction of Inflammation. J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 2003;26:405–411.
    doi: 10.1046/j.0140-7783.2003.00532.xpubmed: 14962051google scholar: lookup
  30. Robbins SN, Goggs R, Lhermie G, Lalonde-Paul DF, Menard J. Antimicrobial Prescribing Practices in Small Animal Emergency and Critical Care. Front. Vet. Sci. 2020;7:110.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.00110pmc: PMC7093014pubmed: 32258067google scholar: lookup
  31. Escher M, Vanni M, Intorre L, Caprioli A, Tognetti R, Scavia G. Use of Antimicrobials in Companion Animal Practice: A Retrospective Study in a Veterinary Teaching Hospital in Italy. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2011;66:920–927.
    doi: 10.1093/jac/dkq543pubmed: 21393194google scholar: lookup
  32. Black DM, Rankin SC, King LG. Antimicrobial Therapy and Aerobic Bacteriologic Culture Patterns in Canine Intensive Care Unit Patients: 74 Dogs (January–June 2006). J. Vet. Emerg. Crit. Care. 2009;19:489–495.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2009.00463.xpubmed: 19821892google scholar: lookup
  33. Buckland EL, O’Neill D, Summers J, Mateus A, Church D, Redmond L, Brodbelt D. Characterisation of Antimicrobial Usage in Cats and Dogs Attending UK Primary Care Companion Animal Veterinary Practices. Vet. Rec. 2016;179:489.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.103830pubmed: 27543064google scholar: lookup
  34. Schmitt K, Lehner C, Schuller S, Schüpbach-Regula G, Mevissen M, Peter R, Müntener CR, Naegeli H, Willi B. Antimicrobial Use for Selected Diseases in Cats in Switzerland. BMC Vet. Res. 2019;15:94.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-019-1821-0pmc: PMC6417182pubmed: 30871537google scholar: lookup
  35. Chinemerem Nwobodo D, Ugwu MC, Oliseloke Anie C, Al-Ouqaili MTS, Chinedu Ikem J, Victor Chigozie U, Saki M. Antibiotic Resistance: The Challenges and Some Emerging Strategies for Tackling a Global Menace. J. Clin. Lab. Anal. 2022;36:e24655.
    doi: 10.1002/jcla.24655pmc: PMC9459344pubmed: 35949048google scholar: lookup
  36. Odenholt I, Gustafsson I, Löwdin E, Cars O. Suboptimal Antibiotic Dosage as a Risk Factor for Selection of Penicillin-Resistant Streptococcus Pneumoniae: In Vitro Kinetic Model. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2003;47:518–523.
    doi: 10.1128/AAC.47.2.518-523.2003pmc: PMC151721pubmed: 12543652google scholar: lookup
  37. Póvoa P, Moniz P, Pereira JG, Coelho L. Optimizing Antimicrobial Drug Dosing in Critically Ill Patients. Microorganisms 2021;9:1401.
    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms9071401pmc: PMC8305961pubmed: 34203510google scholar: lookup
  38. Mabilat C, Gros MF, Nicolau D, Mouton JW, Textoris J, Roberts JA, Cotta MO, van Belkum A, Caniaux I. Diagnostic and Medical Needs for Therapeutic Drug Monitoring of Antibiotics. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2020;39:791–797.
    doi: 10.1007/s10096-019-03769-8pmc: PMC7182631pubmed: 31828686google scholar: lookup
  39. Nair AB, Jacob S. A Simple Practice Guide for Dose Conversion between Animals and Human. J. Basic Clin. Pharm. 2016;7:27–31.
    doi: 10.4103/0976-0105.177703pmc: PMC4804402pubmed: 27057123google scholar: lookup
  40. Nahata MC, Vashi VI, Swanson RN, Messig MA, Chung M. Pharmacokinetics of Ampicillin and Sulbactam in Pediatric Patients. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1999;43:1225–1229.
    doi: 10.1128/AAC.43.5.1225pmc: PMC89137pubmed: 10223940google scholar: lookup
  41. Lee HJ, Ryu PD, Lee H, Cho MH, Lee MH. Screening for Penicillin Plasma Residues in Cattle by Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay. Acta Vet. Brno. 2001;70:353–358.
    doi: 10.2754/avb200170030353google scholar: lookup
  42. McWhinney BC, Wallis SC, Hillister T, Roberts JA, Lipman J, Ungerer JPJ. Analysis of 12 Beta-Lactam Antibiotics in Human Plasma by HPLC with Ultraviolet Detection. J. Chromatogr. B-Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. 2010;878:2039–2043.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2010.05.027pubmed: 20561826google scholar: lookup
  43. Carlier M, Stove V, De Waele JJ, Verstraete AG. Ultrafast Quantification of β-Lactam Antibiotics in Human Plasma Using UPLC-MS/MS. J. Chromatogr. B-Anal. Technol. Biomed. Life Sci. 2015;978–979:89–94.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2014.11.034pubmed: 25531875google scholar: lookup
  44. Sturgeon CM, Viljoen A. Analytical Error and Interference in Immunoassay: Minimizing Risk. Ann. Clin. Biochem. 2011;48:418–432.
    doi: 10.1258/acb.2011.011073pubmed: 21750113google scholar: lookup
  45. Schreiber G, Keating AE. Protein Binding Specificity versus Promiscuity. Curr. Opin. Struct. Biol. 2011;21:50–61.
    doi: 10.1016/j.sbi.2010.10.002pmc: PMC3053118pubmed: 21071205google scholar: lookup
  46. Strathmann FG, Hoofnagle AN. Current and Future Applications of Mass Spectrometry to the Clinical Laboratory. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 2011;136:609–616.
    doi: 10.1309/AJCPW0TA8OBBNGCKpubmed: 21917684google scholar: lookup
  47. Tang L, Swezey RR, Green CE, Mirsalis JC. Enhancement of Sensitivity and Quantification Quality in the LC-MS/MS Measurement of Large Biomolecules with Sum of MRM (SMRM). Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2022;414:1933–1947.
    doi: 10.1007/s00216-021-03829-zpmc: PMC8804067pubmed: 34997251google scholar: lookup
  48. Rankin-Turner S, Heaney LM. Mass Spectrometry in the Clinical Laboratory. A Short Journey through the Contribution to the Scientific Literature by CCLM. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. (CCLM) 2023;61:873–879.
    doi: 10.1515/cclm-2022-0984pubmed: 36282951google scholar: lookup
  49. Bardhi A, Zaghini A, Levionnois O, Barbarossa A. A Quick Approach for Medetomidine Enantiomer Determination in Dog Plasma by Chiral Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry and Application to a Pharmacokinetic Study. Drug Test. Anal. 2021;13:1249–1255.
    doi: 10.1002/dta.3015pubmed: 33569906google scholar: lookup
  50. Romano JE, Bardhi A, Pagliuca G, Villadόniga GB, Barbarossa A. Pharmacokinetics of Florfenicol in Serum and Seminal Plasma in Beef Bulls. Theriogenology 2024;218:276–281.
    doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2024.01.012pubmed: 38377713google scholar: lookup
  51. Bardhi A, Vecchiato CG, Sabetti MC, Tardo AM, Vasylyeva K, Biagi G, Pietra M, Barbarossa A. A Novel UHPLC–MS/MS Method for the Measurement of 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 in Canine Serum and Its Application to Healthy Dogs. Animals 2024;14:62.
    doi: 10.3390/ani14010062pmc: PMC10778062pubmed: 38200793google scholar: lookup
  52. Schmerold I, van Geijlswijk I, Gehring R. European Regulations on the Use of Antibiotics in Veterinary Medicine. Eur. J. Pharm. Sci. 2023;189:106473.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ejps.2023.106473pubmed: 37220817google scholar: lookup
  53. Zakaria R, Allen KJ, Koplin JJ, Roche P, Greaves RF. Advantages and Challenges of Dried Blood Spot Analysis by Mass Spectrometry across the Total Testing Process. J. Int. Fed. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 2016;27:288–317.
    pmc: PMC5282914pubmed: 28149263
  54. Samsonova JV, Saushkin NY, Osipov AP. Dried Blood Spots Technology for Veterinary Applications and Biological Investigations: Technical Aspects, Retrospective Analysis, Ongoing Status and Future Perspectives. Vet. Res. Commun. 2022;46:655–698.
    doi: 10.1007/s11259-022-09957-wpmc: PMC9244892pubmed: 35771305google scholar: lookup
  55. Allaway D, Alexander JE, Carvell-Miller LJ, Reynolds RM, Winder CL, Weber RJM, Lloyd GR, Southam AD, Dunn WB. Suitability of Dried Blood Spots for Accelerating Veterinary Biobank Collections and Identifying Metabolomics Biomarkers With Minimal Resources. Front. Vet. Sci. 2022;9:887163.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.887163pmc: PMC9258959pubmed: 35812865google scholar: lookup
  56. Wickremsinhe ER, Perkins EJ. Using Dried Blood Spot Sampling to Improve Data Quality and Reduce Animal Use in Mouse Pharmacokinetic Studies. J. Am. Assoc. Lab. Anim. Sci. 2015;54:139–144.
    pmc: PMC4382617pubmed: 25836959
  57. Dunkel B, Johns IC. Antimicrobial Use in Critically Ill Horses. J. Vet. Emerg. Crit. Care. 2015;25:89–100.
    doi: 10.1111/vec.12275pubmed: 25582245google scholar: lookup
  58. . Categorisation of Antibiotics for Use in Animals: Answer to the Request from the European Commission for Updating the Scientific Advice on the Impact on Public Health and Animal Health of the Use of Antibiotics in Animals. Dec, 2019. [(accessed on 30 September 2024)].
  59. Taylor S. A Review of Equine Sepsis. Equine Vet. Educ. 2015;27:99–109.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12290pmc: PMC7163761pubmed: 32313390google scholar: lookup
  60. Theelen MJ, David Wilson W, Dacvim H, Byrne BA, Edman JM, Gary Magdesian K. Cumulative Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Bacteria Isolated From Foals With Sepsis: 1990–2015. CABI Digital Library Wallingford, UK: 2016.
  61. Matuszewski BK. Standard Line Slopes as a Measure of a Relative Matrix Effect in Quantitative HPLC–MS Bioanalysis. J. Chromatogr. B. 2006;830:293–300.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2005.11.009pubmed: 16310419google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,001 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.