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Topic:Medication
The topic of medication in horses encompasses the study and application of pharmaceutical substances used to treat, manage, or prevent diseases and conditions in equine patients. This field involves understanding the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of various drugs, including their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion in horses. Medications commonly administered to horses include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), antibiotics, anthelmintics, and sedatives. The appropriate use of these medications is critical for ensuring therapeutic efficacy and minimizing adverse effects. Research in this area focuses on dosage optimization, drug interactions, resistance development, and withdrawal times to ensure both the health of the horse and compliance with regulatory standards. This page aggregates peer-reviewed studies and scholarly articles that explore the pharmacological aspects, clinical applications, and regulatory considerations of equine medications.
Infracyanine green photodynamic therapy provides short-term disease control, but recurrence is common in equine immune-mediated keratitis. To evaluate long-term clinical outcomes, recurrence rates, and complications following photodynamic therapy (PDT) in horses with immune-mediated keratitis. Unassigned: Medical records of horses treated with PDT at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Equine Clinic from May 2018 through October 2025 were reviewed retrospectively. Eyes with a clinical diagnosis of recurrent immune-mediated keratitis that had responded to immunosuppressive therapy and been subjected to PDT therapy were included. Infracyanine green was injected intrastromally, followed by irradiation with an 810-nm diod...
Safety and efficacy of feed additives consisting of tinctures derived from the roots or leaves and stems of Althaea officinalis L.: Marsh mallow root tincture for use in all animal species and marsh mallow leaf tincture for use in horses and dogs (FEFANA asbl). Following a request from the European Commission, EFSA was asked to deliver a scientific opinion on the safety and efficacy of two tinctures obtained from the roots (marsh mallow root tincture) or leaves and stems (marsh mallow leaf tincture) of L. when used as sensory additives. The additives are water/ethanol tinctures, with a specified dry matter content of 2%-3% (w/w) (marsh mallow root tincture) and not more than 25% (w/w) (marsh mallow leaf tincture). Marsh mallow root tincture is intended for use in feed or water for drinking for all animal species, while marsh mallow leaf tincture is ...
Antimicrobial stewardship priorities and prescribing in Australian equine practice. Antimicrobial resistance is a global health crisis that needs to be addressed by all areas of human and animal health sectors to safeguard effective antibiotics into the future. Understanding current antimicrobial prescribing patterns and veterinary antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) priorities is crucial for effective stewardship program design and sustainable uptake. Objective: To identify focus areas for stewardship interventions, implementation, resource allocation, and future campaign targets for equine practice. Methods: Cross-sectional study of equine veterinarians in Australia. Methods: A...
Clinical Efficacy of Varying Dosages of Intravenous Phenylbutazone in a Reversible Model of Equine Foot Lameness. The objective of this experiment was to compare the clinical efficacy of various dosages of phenylbutazone (PBZ) with a negative control. The hypothesis was that higher PBZ doses would result in improved efficacy in a dose-dependent manner. Eight horses were shod with adjustable heart bar shoes on one front foot. Grade 4.0/5.0 lameness was induced every 2 to 4 weeks by tightening a set screw against the heart bar. Heart rate (HR) and lameness score (LS) were monitored at rest; every 20 min after lameness induction for 5 h; and hourly for another 8 h. One hour after lameness induction, treatmen...
Oral Mosapride Attenuates Gastrointestinal Dysmotility During Experimental Endotoxemia in Horses: A Randomized, Blinded Crossover Study. Endotoxemia is a major contributor to gastrointestinal hypomotility and postoperative ileus in horses. This study investigated whether oral mosapride retained prokinetic activity during acute lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced endotoxemia. Seven healthy adult horses were enrolled in a randomized, blinded, three-period crossover trial and received LPS alone, mosapride alone (MOSA), or LPS plus mosapride (LPS + MOSA), with a 14-day washout interval between periods. Mosapride was administered orally at 2 mg/kg, whereas endotoxemia was induced by an intravenous infusion of O55:B5 LPS (0.03 µg/kg) ...
Residual contamination in nebulization medication cups after corticosteroid administration: an in vitro assessment with implications for equine doping control. Nebulization is increasingly used to administer respiratory medications in horses. However, the potential for residual contamination in medication cups after administering regulated substances raises concerns about inadvertent doping. Objective: To evaluate whether medication cups used for nebulization of corticosteroids can subsequently be used for administration of non-regulated substances without detectable carryover. Methods: In vitro experimental study. Methods: Three corticosteroids (budesonide, dexamethasone, fluticasone propionate) were nebulized using Flexineb™ medication cups. Foll...
[Determination of 33 non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug residues in horse urine by QuEChERS-ultra performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry]. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs （NSAIDs） are often used to treat horses' injuries and pain due to long-term training and competitions. In equestrian competitions， NSAIDs do not affect the upper limit of a horse's athletic ability， but they can enable the horse to perform close to its maximum capacity by reducing inflammation and pain. This not only affects the competition results， but also fails to ensure the health and welfare of the horses. Therefore， it has become crucial to effectively monitor and control NSAIDs residues during equestrian competition. In this study， a r...
Thyroid Diseases. Thyroid hormones in horses fluctuate with factors like time of day, diet, activity, or medications. True hypothyroidism is rare in adults, and other causes for the observed clinical signs, such as equine metabolic syndrome, should be considered. Hyperthyroidism can occur in older horses and is sometimes associated with clinical signs requiring surgical treatment. In neonatal foals, distinct forms of hypothyroidism are associated with dysmaturity and can be life-threatening. While thyroid supplementation can help in managing equine metabolic syndrome, inappropriate use can impair athletic perfo...
Population Pharmacokinetics and Detection Times of Betamethasone After Intravenous, Intramuscular, and Intranasal Jet Administration of Betamethasone Sodium Phosphate in Horses. Betamethasone sodium phosphate (BETP) is a glucocorticosteroid used in humans. The primary objective was to estimate irrelevant plasma (IPC) and urine (IUC) concentrations using a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic approach based on systemic clearance estimated from intravenous (IV) pharmacokinetic data. As a secondary objective, detection times (DTs) following IV, intramuscular (IM), and intranasal jet (INJ) administration were estimated for medication control. Plasma and urine concentrations were obtained from a total of 20 horses in Japan and Germany, with some horses contributing to more than...
Synthesis and Characterization of 2-(1-Hydroxyethyl)Promazine Sulfoxide-d4 HCl as an Internal Standard for the Accurate Quantitation of 2-(1-Hydroxyethyl)Promazine Sulfoxide in Equine Urine. Acetylpromazine, 1-{10-[3-(dimethylamino)propyl]-10H-phenothiazin-2-yl}ethenone, CHNOS, 326.46 g·mol is a phenothiazine derivative at one time used in human medicine as an antipsychotic medication but now predominantly used in veterinary medicine as a sedative/tranquilizer and referred to as acepromazine. In performance horses its use is regulated by using a 10 ng/mL threshold for the major urinary metabolite 2-(1-hydroxyethyl) promazine-sulfoxide (HEPS) in equine urine. To enable accurate quantitation of HEPS in equine urine we have synthesized and purified hydroxyethylpromazine sulfoxid...
Proof of concept for low dose and delayed release of tigilanol tiglate in the treatment of equine sarcoids. Intra-tumoural administration of tigilanol tiglate has been shown effective in local treatment of cutaneous equine neoplasias. The drug causes rapid oncolysis and tumour slough, but may also be associated with comorbidities in sensitive and/or intricate anatomical sites due to its initial pro-inflammatory mode of action. Here we describe two approaches to optimise and further de-risk treatment of equine sarcoids with tigilanol tiglate, especially in difficult locations. Firstly, we provide preliminary clinical and observational data on the efficacy of low dose administration of tigilanol tigla...
Seizures and blindness onset zone in 7 horses undergoing radiographic myelography in lateral recumbency under inhalation anesthesia. Seizures and blindness are potential complications associated with myelography. Objective: Describe, classify, and determine onset zone of seizures and blindness in horses undergoing radiographic myelography in lateral recumbency. Methods: Seven young adult horses. Methods: Retrospective study. Horses with seizures or blindness associated with myelography were included. Results: Three horses with general proprioceptive ataxia and 4 neurologically normal horses (Warmblood = 4, Thoroughbred = 3), ages 9 (range, 3-16) years old. Iohexol (300 mg I/mL) from 50 to 60 mL (0.09-0.1 mL/kg) were ...
Efficiency of a Combination of Polyethylene Glycol and Psyllium on the Evacuation of Sand Compared to Established Treatment Regimes in Sand Enteropathy of the Horse. The accumulation of sand in the abdomen is a rising risk for colic in horses. Sand mainly accumulates in the ascending colon in the cranioventral abdomen. Evacuation of sand is facilitated by the application of psyllium supported with a laxative via nasogastric intubation. Laxatives currently used are either sodium sulfate/magnesium sulfate or mineral oil. The aim of this study was to compare the efficiency of polyethylene glycol, a laxative already used in human medicine for chronic constipation, with that of the above-described, established therapy options. Therefore, 44 horses diagnosed wit...
Detection of Cyclosporine in Horse Hair After Ocular Implant Administration. This study describes the detection and temporal distribution of cyclosporine in equine hair following ocular implant administration in a Thoroughbred gelding. Mane hair samples were collected at 172- and 217-day post-implantation and analysed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) after alkaline hydrolysis and liquid-liquid extraction. The method achieved an estimated limit of detection of 0.1 pg/mg. Cyclosporine was detected in hair at both sampling time points, with segmental analysis revealing distribution patterns consistent with systemic exposure and incorporation ...
Comparison of xylazine-ketamine-guaifenesin and xylazine-tiletamine-zolazepam protocols for constant rate infusion anesthesia in horses undergoing field castration. The common use of "triple drip" (xylazine, ketamine, and guaifenesin; XKG) is a popular protocol for constant rate infusion (CRI) in equine practice. However, due to restrictions on ketamine and guaifenesin in many countries, tiletamine-zolazepam (TZ) could serve as an alternative. To date, there have been limited studies evaluating the use of xylazine in combination with TZ (XTZ) administered via CRI to maintain surgical anesthesia in equine field practice. Objective: To compare the effectiveness and safety of XTZ infusion with the classical XKG protocol for field anesthesia. Methods: Twelve ...
Perineural dexamethasone does not prolong bupivacaine sensory blockade in equine palmar digital nerve blocks: a randomized crossover trial. To determine whether dexamethasone sodium phosphate (dexamethasone SP) prolongs the sensory blockade produced by perineural bupivacaine during medial and lateral palmar digital nerve blocks in horses. Unassigned: 8 healthy adult horses were enrolled in a blinded, randomized 4 X 4 crossover trial. Each horse received 1 of 4 perineural treatments over the palmar digital nerves of the left forelimb: bupivacaine, bupivacaine + dexamethasone SP, dexamethasone SP alone, or saline. A minimum 7-day washout was used between treatments. Mechanical nociceptive threshold (MNT) was measured at baseline and...
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug administration alters crypt distribution of the peroxisomal marker acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1 in the equine right dorsal colon. To characterize and compare the distribution of peroxisomal markers in the right dorsal colon (RDC) and left ventral colon (LVC) of healthy horses and horses treated with NSAIDs. Unassigned: Archived colonic tissues were evaluated from 10 horses (n = 5/group) administered phenylbutazone (4.4 mg/kg, PO, twice daily for 10 days) or placebo prior to euthanasia. Samples from the RDC and LVC were analyzed using immunofluorescence to assess peroxisomal biogenesis factor 14 (PEX14) and acyl-coenzyme A oxidase 1 (ACOX1) distribution. Marker abundance was quantified within colonic crypts and compared b...
Canagliflozin treatment of a horse with hyperinsulinemia, including pharmacokinetic analysis of different dosing protocols: a case report. Laminitis is a complex and painful disease of the equine foot. Insulin dysregulation (ID) resulting in hyperinsulinemia is responsible for more than 90% of cases in the general horse and pony population. Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i) are a relatively new class of drug that has gained considerable popularity as an off-label treatment of hyperinsulinemia-associated laminitis (HAL) in horses when traditional management changes and treatments are unsuccessful. In Canada, canagliflozin is the SGLT2i most available to equine veterinarians; although no dosing protocols have been ...
Simple and efficient HPLC-MS/MS method for simultaneous extraction and quantification of anthelmintics in equine manure. Anthelmintic treatment is a common practice in horses. The presence of pharmaceutical residues in fields and pastures is well-documented affecting various organisms, like nematodes. This study describes the development and validation of a high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS) method using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) for extracting and determining the concentrations of four commonly used anthelmintics in horse manure. Manure was initially dried, then spiked with various concentrations (10-10,000 ng) of anthelmintics and extracted using an acetonit...
Combined treatment with valacyclovir and heparin reduced the incidence of equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy and improved survival in naturally occurring equine herpesvirus-1 outbreaks. Describe the effects and outcomes of valacyclovir and heparin administration in equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1)-exposed horses. Unassigned: A multicenter retrospective study identified 111 horses naturally exposed to EHV-1 from August 2017 to March 2018. Equine herpesvirus-1 infection was confirmed via blood or nasal secretion PCR. Horses that developed neurologic signs were diagnosed with equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM). Clinical signs, treatment, and survival were reported. A subset of horses was treated with valacyclovir and heparin. Prophylactic medication administration was perf...
Gastroscopic Evaluation of Gastric Mucosa in Horses Treated With Flunixin Meglumine or High-Dose Firocoxib: A Descriptive Pilot Study. Equine Gastric Ulcer Syndrome (EGUS) is common in horses, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are a known risk factor for gastrointestinal ulceration. Although COX-2 selective NSAIDs such as firocoxib theoretically offer a better safety profile, endoscopic evidence for their mucosal safety at high off-label doses is lacking. Objective: To compare the effects of label-dose flunixin meglumine and high-dose firocoxib on the gastric mucosa of a small selected group of horses using serial gastroscopy and histopathology in a descriptive pilot study. Methods: Twenty mixed-breed horses w...
USE OF GUAIFENESIN-KETAMINE-XYLAZINE INFUSION FOR MAINTENANCE OF ANESTHESIA IN CAPTIVE PREZEWALSKI HORSES (EQUUS FERUS PRZEWALSKI ): A CASE SERIES. This case series documents the use of triple drip, a combination of IV guaifenesin, ketamine, and xylazine (GKX) to extend the length of anesthesia in zoo-owned Przewalski horses (). In three separate procedures involving two different animals, GKX was used to prolong and deepen the plane of anesthesia for 90 to 120 min beyond an initial induction dart containing ketamine, butorphanol, azaperone, and medetomidine. The depth of anesthesia was sufficient to permit surgical excision of SC abscesses and other procedures. Throughout the anesthetic events, the horses breathed spontaneously and maint...
Correction: Phenylbutazone concentrations in synovial fluid following administration via intravenous regional limb perfusion in the forelimbs of six adult horses. [This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2026.1810077.].
Characterization of the Pharmacokinetics and Physiological Effects of Tapentadol in Horses. Tapentadol is a dual mechanism analgesic utilizing both μ-opioid receptor (MOR) agonism and norepinephrine reuptake inhibition (NRI). This study evaluated the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of tapentadol as a potential analgesic with the goal of treating pain in horses. Pharmacokinetics of both tapentadol and tapentadol-O-glucuronide were elucidated. Six horses received three separate escalating single oral doses (1, 3, and 5 mg/kg) and a single intravenous (0.32 mg/kg) dose of tapentadol in a four-period sequential design. Concentrations of tapentadol and tapentadol-O-glucuronide ...
Meta-Analysis and Physiologically-Based Modeling of the Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Dexamethasone in Horses. Dexamethasone (DEX) is widely used in equine practice for its potent anti-inflammatory effects and diverse studies have examined its pharmacology in horses. We integrated all available pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) data from 12 studies to quantify DEX disposition and endocrine effects in horses. Methods: DEX concentrations in blood, urine and synovial fluid, plus cortisol (CTS) and glucose (GLU) in plasma, following various administration routes (intravenous (IV), intramuscular (IM), intra-articular, oral) were available from original studies or digitized from literature. A mi...
Comparative Pharmacokinetics of Gentamicin in Healthy Young-Adult and Geriatric Horses. Aging may modify the pharmacokinetic disposition and excretion of gentamicin, although drug dose adjustments in aged horses are uncommon in clinical practice. Since high-dose, once daily dosing of gentamicin is considered therapeutically most effective, a comparative single-dose study was conducted to evaluate the differences in pharmacokinetics between healthy young-adult (5-10 years) and geriatric (≥ 25 years) horses receiving 6.6 mg/kg gentamicin intravenously. Blood samples were collected at designated time-points following drug administration and frozen at -80°C until assayed b...
OPTIMIZING EXTRACTION AND CONCENTRATION METHODS FOR LC-MS/MS ANALYSIS OF VETERINARY PHARMACEUTICALS IN EQUINE-ASSOCIATED ENVIRONMENTAL MATRICES. This study developed a method for the simultaneous quantification of six potentially environmentally toxic veterinary drugs: benzylpenicillin, acepromazine, flunixin, dexamethasone, ketamine and romifidine, in soils, sediments, equine faeces and natural waters. Three methods were compared for their extraction from solid matrices: Ultrasonic extraction (USE), QuEChERS and Accelerated Solvent Extraction (ASE). ASE method was optimized according to temperature and extraction cycles. Quantification was performed by LC-MS/MS. LC and MS parameters were optimized. The method was validated according t...
Cheek tooth extraction in geriatric versus non-geriatric horses. Age-related dental changes are major contributors to dental disorders in older horses, and cheek tooth extractions are often required to maintain masticatory function and oral comfort. However, limited information is available on clinical and treatment characteristics in this older patient population. Objective: To describe clinical features, treatments, complication rates and short-term outcomes of horses undergoing oral cheek tooth extraction and treatment of odontogenic sinusitis, and to compare findings between geriatric and non-geriatric horses. Methods: Retrospective analysis of clinical...
Oclacitinib for Controlling Pruritus and Associated Skin Lesions in 16 Horses With Allergic Dermatitis. Oclacitinib is a Janus kinase inhibitor approved for the treatment of pruritus associated with allergic dermatitis in dogs and may be effective in horses. Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of oclacitinib in reducing pruritus and skin lesions in horses with allergic dermatitis. Methods: Sixteen horses aged ≥ 18 months. Methods: Horses received oclacitinib at 0.25 mg/kg orally once daily for 21 days. Changes in haematological and biochemical parameters were measured on Day (D)0 and D21. The owners were instructed to evaluate the horses using the pruritus Visual Analog Scale (PVAS) on...
