FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Equine Vet J / A prospective study of the roles of clostridium difficile an...
Equine veterinary journal2001; 33(4); 403-409; doi: 10.2746/042516401776249534

A prospective study of the roles of clostridium difficile and enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens in equine diarrhoea.

Abstract: Faecal samples from adult horses and from foals with diarrhoea or with normal faeces were evaluated for the presence of Clostridium difficile, C. difficile toxins, C. perfringens enterotoxin (CPE) and C. perfringens spore counts. Clostridium difficile was isolated from 7/55 horses (12.7%) and 11/31 foals (35.5%) with colitis, but from 1/255 normal adults (0.4%) and 0/47 normal foals (P<0.001). Clostridium difficile toxins A and/or B were detected in 12/55 diarrhoeic adults (21.8%) and 5/30 diarrhoeic foals (16.7%) but in only 1/83 adults (1.2%) and 0/21 foals with normal faeces (P<0.001 and P<0.05, respectively). Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin was detected in 9/47 diarrhoeic adults (19%) and 8/28 diarrhoeic foals (28.6%), but was not detected in 47 adult horses (P<0.002) or 4 foals (P = 0.22) with normal faeces. The positive predictive value of isolation of C. perfringens with respect to the presence of CPE was only 60% in adult horses and 64% in foals. There was no association between total C. perfringens spore count and CPE in the faeces. The overall mortality rate from colitis was 22% for adult horses and 18% for foals. Clostridium difficile toxin-positive adult horses with colitis were less likely to survive than C. difficile-negative horses with colitis (P = 0.03). This study provides further evidence that C. difficile and enterotoxigenic C. perfringens are associated with equine enterocolitis.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2001-07-27 PubMed ID: 11469775DOI: 10.2746/042516401776249534Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article reports a study suggesting that Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens are potential contributors to diarrhoea and colitis in horses and foals.

Research Methodology

  • The scientists conducted a thorough examination of faecal samples taken from both adult horses and foals. These samples were collected from individuals experiencing diarrhoea as well as those who displayed normal faecal output.
  • They specifically looked for the presence of Clostridium difficile (a bacterium causing stool abnormalities), C. difficile toxins, C. perfringens enterotoxin (a toxic substance produced by Clostridium perfringens), and counts of C. perfringens spore (an infectious and resilient form of the bacteria).

Key Findings

  • Clostridium difficile was found in a significant proportion of horses (12.7%) and foals (35.5%) with colitis, a condition characterized by inflammation of the colon causing diarrhoea. The bacterium was found in 0.4% of normal adults and was absent in faecal samples of normal foals.
  • A higher prevalence of C. difficile’s toxins A and B were detected in diarrhoeic adults (21.8%) and foals (16.7%) compared to adults (1.2%) and foals with normal stools.
  • Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin was discovered in a considerable number of adults (19%) and foals (28.6%) suffering from diarrhoea. In adults and foals producing normal faeces, the toxin was not detected.
  • The ability to predict the presence of C. perfringens based on the isolation of CPE in adult horses and foals was found to be 60% and 64% accurate, respectively.
  • No correlation was found between total Clostridium perfringens spore count and its toxin in the faecal matter.
  • The mortality rate from colitis was calculated to be 22% for adult horses and 18% for foals. Adults horses with colitis that tested positive for C. difficile toxin demonstrated lower survival rates compared to those testing negative.

Conclusion

  • Based on the outcomes of their investigation, the researchers conclude that both C. difficile and enterotoxigenic C. perfringens play a role in equine enterocolitis (a condition causing severe inflammation of the small intestine and colon in horses and foals).
  • The study advances our understanding of the bacterial cause of diarrhoea and colitis in horses, which may guide future therapeutic strategies to improve equine health.

Cite This Article

APA
Weese JS, Staempfli HR, Prescott JF. (2001). A prospective study of the roles of clostridium difficile and enterotoxigenic Clostridium perfringens in equine diarrhoea. Equine Vet J, 33(4), 403-409. https://doi.org/10.2746/042516401776249534

Publication

Equine veterinary journal
ISSN: 0425-1644
NlmUniqueID: 0173320
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 33
Issue: 4
Pages: 403-409

Researcher Affiliations

Weese, J S
  • Department of Clinical Studies, Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Canada.
Staempfli, H R
    Prescott, J F

      MeSH Terms

      • Animals
      • Anti-Bacterial Agents / pharmacology
      • Bacterial Toxins / immunology
      • Bacterial Toxins / isolation & purification
      • Clostridioides difficile / drug effects
      • Clostridioides difficile / isolation & purification
      • Clostridium Infections / diagnosis
      • Clostridium Infections / epidemiology
      • Clostridium Infections / veterinary
      • Clostridium perfringens / drug effects
      • Clostridium perfringens / isolation & purification
      • Enterocolitis / epidemiology
      • Enterocolitis / microbiology
      • Enterocolitis / veterinary
      • Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay / veterinary
      • Horse Diseases / diagnosis
      • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
      • Horse Diseases / microbiology
      • Horses
      • Microbial Sensitivity Tests
      • Ontario / epidemiology
      • Predictive Value of Tests
      • Prevalence
      • Prospective Studies

      Citations

      This article has been cited 43 times.
      1. Borges AS, Zakia LS, Yu S, Surette MG, Arroyo LG. Isolation of Clostridioides difficile from a Large Animal Veterinary Teaching Hospital Environment. Animals (Basel) 2025 Sep 15;15(18).
        doi: 10.3390/ani15182703pubmed: 41007948google scholar: lookup
      2. Hain-Saunders NMR, Knight DR, Harvey A, Bruce M, Hampson BA, Riley TV. Clostridioides difficile in feral horse populations in Australia. Appl Environ Microbiol 2025 May 21;91(5):e0211424.
        doi: 10.1128/aem.02114-24pubmed: 40172204google scholar: lookup
      3. Haywood LMB, Sheahan BJ. A Review of Epithelial Ion Transporters and Their Roles in Equine Infectious Colitis. Vet Sci 2024 Oct 7;11(10).
        doi: 10.3390/vetsci11100480pubmed: 39453072google scholar: lookup
      4. Kabir A, Lamichhane B, Habib T, Adams A, El-Sheikh Ali H, Slovis NM, Troedsson MHT, Helmy YA. Antimicrobial Resistance in Equines: A Growing Threat to Horse Health and Beyond-A Comprehensive Review. Antibiotics (Basel) 2024 Jul 29;13(8).
        doi: 10.3390/antibiotics13080713pubmed: 39200013google scholar: lookup
      5. Hobbs KJ, Le Sueur ANV, Hallowell K, Martin E, Sheats MK, Ueda Y. Use of extracorporeal hemoperfusion therapy in an adult horse with Clostridioides difficile colitis and severe systemic inflammatory response syndrome. J Vet Intern Med 2024 Sep-Oct;38(5):2790-2794.
        doi: 10.1111/jvim.17154pubmed: 39122666google scholar: lookup
      6. Gomez D, Toribio R, Caddey B, Costa M, Vijan S, Dembek K. Longitudinal effects of oral administration of antimicrobial drugs on fecal microbiota of horses. J Vet Intern Med 2023 Nov-Dec;37(6):2562-2572.
        doi: 10.1111/jvim.16853pubmed: 37681574google scholar: lookup
      7. Stummer M, Frisch V, Glitz F, Hinney B, Spergser J, Krücken J, Diekmann I, Dimmel K, Riedel C, Cavalleri JV, Rümenapf T, Joachim A, Lyrakis M, Auer A. Presence of Equine and Bovine Coronaviruses, Endoparasites, and Bacteria in Fecal Samples of Horses with Colic. Pathogens 2023 Aug 15;12(8).
        doi: 10.3390/pathogens12081043pubmed: 37624003google scholar: lookup
      8. Hain-Saunders NMR, Knight DR, Bruce M, Byrne D, Riley TV. Genomic Analysis of Clostridioides difficile Recovered from Horses in Western Australia. Microorganisms 2023 Jul 3;11(7).
        doi: 10.3390/microorganisms11071743pubmed: 37512915google scholar: lookup
      9. Ayoub C, Arroyo LG, MacNicol JL, Renaud D, Weese JS, Gomez DE. Fecal microbiota of horses with colitis and its association with laminitis and survival during hospitalization. J Vet Intern Med 2022 Nov;36(6):2213-2223.
        doi: 10.1111/jvim.16562pubmed: 36271677google scholar: lookup
      10. Gomez DE, Leclere M, Arroyo LG, Li L, John E, Afonso T, Payette F, Darby S. Acute diarrhea in horses: A multicenter Canadian retrospective study (2015 to 2019). Can Vet J 2022 Oct;63(10):1033-1042.
        pubmed: 36185796
      11. Uzal FA, Navarro MA, Asin J, Henderson EE. Clostridial Diseases of Horses: A Review. Vaccines (Basel) 2022 Feb 17;10(2).
        doi: 10.3390/vaccines10020318pubmed: 35214776google scholar: lookup
      12. Hain-Saunders NMR, Knight DR, Bruce M, Riley TV. Clostridioides difficile infection and One Health: an equine perspective. Environ Microbiol 2022 Mar;24(3):985-997.
        doi: 10.1111/1462-2920.15898pubmed: 35001483google scholar: lookup
      13. Uzal FA, Arroyo LG, Navarro MA, Gomez DE, Asín J, Henderson E. Bacterial and viral enterocolitis in horses: a review. J Vet Diagn Invest 2022 May;34(3):354-375.
        doi: 10.1177/10406387211057469pubmed: 34763560google scholar: lookup
      14. Ramos CP, Diniz AN, Leite SM, Lobato FCF, Pereira ST, Rennó MC, de Oliveira Ferreira E, Silva ROS. Evaluation of an immunochromatographic test for the detection of glutamate dehydrogenase for the diagnosis of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection in dogs. Braz J Microbiol 2021 Dec;52(4):2555-2558.
        doi: 10.1007/s42770-021-00615-ypubmed: 34562233google scholar: lookup
      15. Freitas NFQR, Otaka DY, Galvão CC, de Almeida DM, Ferreira MRA, Moreira Júnior C, Hidalgo MMMH, Conceição FR, Salvarani FM. Humoral Immune Response Evaluation in Horses Vaccinated with Recombinant Clostridium perfringens Toxoids Alpha and Beta for 12 Months. Toxins (Basel) 2021 Aug 13;13(8).
        doi: 10.3390/toxins13080566pubmed: 34437437google scholar: lookup
      16. Kopper JJ, Willette JA, Kogan CJ, Seguin A, Bolin SR, Schott HC 2nd. Detection of pathogens in blood or feces of adult horses with enteric disease and association with outcome of colitis. J Vet Intern Med 2021 Sep;35(5):2465-2472.
        doi: 10.1111/jvim.16238pubmed: 34382708google scholar: lookup
      17. Samir A, Abdel-Moein KA, Zaher HM. Molecular Detection of Toxigenic Clostridioides difficile among Diarrheic Dogs and Cats: A Mounting Public Health Concern. Vet Sci 2021 May 22;8(6).
        doi: 10.3390/vetsci8060088pubmed: 34067253google scholar: lookup
      18. Weese JS, Slovis N, Rousseau J. Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile in neonatal foals and mares at a referral hospital. J Vet Intern Med 2021 Mar;35(2):1140-1146.
        doi: 10.1111/jvim.16094pubmed: 33656757google scholar: lookup
      19. Lindroth KM, Dicksved J, Pelve E, Båverud V, Müller CE. Faecal bacterial composition in horses with and without free faecal liquid: a case control study. Sci Rep 2021 Feb 26;11(1):4745.
        doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-83897-4pubmed: 33637818google scholar: lookup
      20. Tuniyazi M, He J, Guo J, Li S, Zhang N, Hu X, Fu Y. Changes of microbial and metabolome of the equine hindgut during oligofructose-induced laminitis. BMC Vet Res 2021 Jan 6;17(1):11.
        doi: 10.1186/s12917-020-02686-9pubmed: 33407409google scholar: lookup
      21. Thanissery R, McLaren MR, Rivera A, Reed AD, Betrapally NS, Burdette T, Winston JA, Jacob M, Callahan BJ, Theriot CM. Clostridioides difficile carriage in animals and the associated changes in the host fecal microbiota. Anaerobe 2020 Dec;66:102279.
        doi: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2020.102279pubmed: 33022384google scholar: lookup
      22. Arnold CE, Isaiah A, Pilla R, Lidbury J, Coverdale JS, Callaway TR, Lawhon SD, Steiner J, Suchodolski JS. The cecal and fecal microbiomes and metabolomes of horses before and after metronidazole administration. PLoS One 2020;15(5):e0232905.
        doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0232905pubmed: 32442163google scholar: lookup
      23. Ramos CP, Lopes EO, Oliveira Júnior CA, Diniz AN, Lobato FCF, Silva ROS. Immunochromatographic test and ELISA for the detection of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and A/B toxins as an alternative for the diagnosis of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile-associated diarrhea in foals and neonatal piglets. Braz J Microbiol 2020 Sep;51(3):1459-1462.
        doi: 10.1007/s42770-020-00275-4pubmed: 32363568google scholar: lookup
      24. Mallicote M, House AM, Sanchez LC. A review of foal diarrhoea from birth to weaning. Equine Vet Educ 2012 Apr;24(4):206-214.
        doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2011.00358.xpubmed: 32313387google scholar: lookup
      25. Mehdizadeh Gohari I, Unterer S, Whitehead AE, Prescott JF. NetF-producing Clostridium perfringens and its associated diseases in dogs and foals. J Vet Diagn Invest 2020 Mar;32(2):230-238.
        doi: 10.1177/1040638720904714pubmed: 32081091google scholar: lookup
      26. Archambault M, Rubin JE. Antimicrobial Resistance in Clostridium and Brachyspira spp. and Other Anaerobes. Microbiol Spectr 2020 Jan;8(1).
        doi: 10.1128/microbiolspec.ARBA-0020-2017pubmed: 31971162google scholar: lookup
      27. Weese JS. Clostridium (Clostridioides) difficile in animals. J Vet Diagn Invest 2020 Mar;32(2):213-221.
        doi: 10.1177/1040638719899081pubmed: 31904312google scholar: lookup
      28. Bandelj P, Harmanus C, Blagus R, Cotman M, Kuijper EJ, Ocepek M, Vengust M. Quantification of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile in feces of calves of different age and determination of predominant Clostridioides difficile ribotype 033 relatedness and transmission between family dairy farms using multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis. BMC Vet Res 2018 Oct 1;14(1):298.
        doi: 10.1186/s12917-018-1616-8pubmed: 30285751google scholar: lookup
      29. Whitfield-Cargile CM, Chamoun-Emanuelli AM, Cohen ND, Richardson LM, Ajami NJ, Dockery HJ. Differential effects of selective and non-selective cyclooxygenase inhibitors on fecal microbiota in adult horses. PLoS One 2018;13(8):e0202527.
        doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0202527pubmed: 30138339google scholar: lookup
      30. Olivo G, Lucas TM, Borges AS, Silva RO, Lobato FC, Siqueira AK, da Silva Leite D, Brandão PE, Gregori F, de Oliveira-Filho JP, Takai S, Ribeiro MG. Enteric Pathogens and Coinfections in Foals with and without Diarrhea. Biomed Res Int 2016;2016:1512690.
        doi: 10.1155/2016/1512690pubmed: 28116290google scholar: lookup
      31. Fohler S, Klein G, Hoedemaker M, Scheu T, Seyboldt C, Campe A, Jensen KC, Abdulmawjood A. Diversity of Clostridium perfringens toxin-genotypes from dairy farms. BMC Microbiol 2016 Aug 30;16(1):199.
        doi: 10.1186/s12866-016-0812-6pubmed: 27577792google scholar: lookup
      32. Finley A, Gohari IM, Parreira VR, Abrahams M, Staempfli HR, Prescott JF. Prevalence of netF-positive Clostridium perfringens in foals in southwestern Ontario. Can J Vet Res 2016 Jul;80(3):242-4.
        pubmed: 27408339
      33. Keen PL, Patrick DM. Tracking Change: A Look at the Ecological Footprint of Antibiotics and Antimicrobial Resistance. Antibiotics (Basel) 2013 Mar 27;2(2):191-205.
        doi: 10.3390/antibiotics2020191pubmed: 27029298google scholar: lookup
      34. Schoster A, Staempfli HR, Abrahams M, Jalali M, Weese JS, Guardabassi L. Effect of a probiotic on prevention of diarrhea and Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens shedding in foals. J Vet Intern Med 2015 May-Jun;29(3):925-31.
        doi: 10.1111/jvim.12584pubmed: 25903509google scholar: lookup
      35. Uzal FA, Vidal JE, McClane BA, Gurjar AA. Clostridium Perfringens Toxins Involved in Mammalian Veterinary Diseases. Open Toxinology J 2010;2:24-42.
        pubmed: 24511335
      36. Bandelj P, Trilar T, Blagus R, Ocepek M, Rousseau J, Weese JS, Vengust M. Prevalence and molecular characterization of Clostridium difficile isolated from European Barn Swallows (Hirundo rustica) during migration. BMC Vet Res 2014 Feb 8;10:40.
        doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-10-40pubmed: 24507706google scholar: lookup
      37. Gohari IM, Arroyo L, Macinnes JI, Timoney JF, Parreira VR, Prescott JF. Characterization of Clostridium perfringens in the feces of adult horses and foals with acute enterocolitis. Can J Vet Res 2014 Jan;78(1):1-7.
        pubmed: 24396174
      38. Li J, Adams V, Bannam TL, Miyamoto K, Garcia JP, Uzal FA, Rood JI, McClane BA. Toxin plasmids of Clostridium perfringens. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2013 Jun;77(2):208-33.
        doi: 10.1128/MMBR.00062-12pubmed: 23699255google scholar: lookup
      39. Costa MC, Arroyo LG, Allen-Vercoe E, Stämpfli HR, Kim PT, Sturgeon A, Weese JS. Comparison of the fecal microbiota of healthy horses and horses with colitis by high throughput sequencing of the V3-V5 region of the 16S rRNA gene. PLoS One 2012;7(7):e41484.
        doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0041484pubmed: 22859989google scholar: lookup
      40. Schoster A, Arroyo LG, Staempfli HR, Shewen PE, Weese JS. Presence and molecular characterization of Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens in intestinal compartments of healthy horses. BMC Vet Res 2012 Jun 29;8:94.
        doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-8-94pubmed: 22748233google scholar: lookup
      41. Frederick J, Giguère S, Sanchez LC. Infectious agents detected in the feces of diarrheic foals: a retrospective study of 233 cases (2003-2008). J Vet Intern Med 2009 Nov-Dec;23(6):1254-60.
        doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2009.0383.xpubmed: 19747192google scholar: lookup
      42. Jhung MA, Thompson AD, Killgore GE, Zukowski WE, Songer G, Warny M, Johnson S, Gerding DN, McDonald LC, Limbago BM. Toxinotype V Clostridium difficile in humans and food animals. Emerg Infect Dis 2008 Jul;14(7):1039-45.
        doi: 10.3201/eid1407.071641pubmed: 18598622google scholar: lookup
      43. Weese JS, Armstrong J. Outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in a small animal veterinary teaching hospital. J Vet Intern Med 2003 Nov-Dec;17(6):813-6.
        doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2003.tb02519.xpubmed: 14658717google scholar: lookup
      Subscribe to our newsletter
      Join 99,030 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.