FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / J Fungi (Basel) / Characteristics of Chrysosporium spp. Pathogens Causing Skin...
Journal of fungi (Basel, Switzerland)2025; 11(4); doi: 10.3390/jof11040297

Characteristics of Chrysosporium spp. Pathogens Causing Skin Mycoses in Horses.

Abstract: Equine skin mycoses are a significant concern in Kazakhstan's livestock industry due to the country's historical livestock farming practices, the development of equestrian sports, and food traditions. Skin infections are among the most common fungal infections in horses. Emerging pathogens of equine dermatophytosis include keratinophilic Chrysosporium spp., which can degrade and metabolize keratin found in superficial tissues. This, combined with their thermotolerance, contributes to their pathogenicity. In this study, we investigated the biological properties and pathogenicity of two Chrysosporium strains isolated from equine skin lesions in northern and central Kazakhstan. Our findings showed that the Chrysosporium isolates caused a variety of clinically expressed skin lesions and exhibited cultural and morphological similarities to Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Genetic identification using ribosomal gene sequencing revealed 98.9% identity with Chrysosporium kreiselii and Chrysosporium zonatum sequences in both cases. The C. kreiselii strain caused pronounced skin lesions typical of classic dermatomycoses, demonstrated both keratinophilic and keratinolytic properties, and showed resistance to antifungal drugs. In contrast, the C. zonatum strain, which caused atypical lesions such as dandruff and seborrhea, was more sensitive to antifungal agents and exhibited keratinophilic properties. Our results highlight the emergence of new pathogenic Chrysosporium strains responsible for skin pathology in horses in Kazakhstan. We recommend that the identification of Chrysosporium skin infections in horses in Kazakhstan be followed by a comprehensive retrospective analysis of newly identified pathogens, including a full characterization of their pathogenicity.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-04-09 PubMed ID: 40278119PubMed Central: PMC12028606DOI: 10.3390/jof11040297Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research examines the biological properties and disease-causing abilities of two skin-affecting fungal species in horses in Kazakhstan, highlighting the presence of new pathogenic strains among these fungi. The study recommends a comprehensive analysis and characterization of these new pathogens to combat their effects.

Study Context and Importance

  • The study takes place in Kazakhstan, owing to its historical livestock farming practices, burgeoning equestrian sports industry, and food traditions. In this setting, equine skin conditions linked to fungal infections are commonplace.
  • The research emphasizes the importance and urgency of understanding new fungal pathogens, as they pose not just health risks to the animals but also serious implications for the economy reliant on these livestock.

Description of the Fungal Pathogens

  • The study focuses on two strains of Chrysosporium species, a type of fungus known for its ability to degrade and metabolize keratin, a key component found in the skin, hair, and nails of animals.
  • This property, in combination with their thermotolerance (resistance to heat), contributes to Chrysosporium’s ability to infect the skin tissue.

Research Methodology and Findings

  • The researchers isolated two strains of Chrysosporium from equine skin lesions for assessment.
  • Through a series of tests and analyses, the study found that the two isolated strains caused a range of skin conditions, from classic skin lesions to atypical symptoms like dandruff and seborrhea.
  • Genetic identification of the strains, using ribosomal gene sequencing, revealed a 98.9% genetic match with existing Chrysosporium species.

Characteristics and Pathogenicity

  • One of the strains, even while demonstrating resistance to antifungal drugs, displayed prominent keratinophilic (attractive to keratin) and keratinolytic (keratin-breaking) properties, causing distinct skin lesions typical of dermatomycoses (fungal skin diseases).
  • The second strain caused less typical conditions such as dandruff and seborrhea but was more sensitive to antifungal substances and displayed keratinophilic properties.

Recommendations

  • Based on these findings, the authors recommend a comprehensive review of the newly identified Chrysosporium pathogenic strains, including their full characterization and pathogenicity.
  • This research could lead to breakthroughs in understanding and treating equine dermatophytosis, improving horse health, and consequently, the livestock industry in Kazakhstan.

Cite This Article

APA
Kukhar Y, Bailina G, Smagulova A, Uakhit R, Kiyan V. (2025). Characteristics of Chrysosporium spp. Pathogens Causing Skin Mycoses in Horses. J Fungi (Basel), 11(4). https://doi.org/10.3390/jof11040297

Publication

Journal of fungi (Basel, Switzerland)
ISSN: 2309-608X
NlmUniqueID: 101671827
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 11
Issue: 4

Researcher Affiliations

Kukhar, Yelena
  • Research Platform of Agricultural Biotechnology, S. Seifullin Kazakh Agrotechnical Research University, Astana 010011, Kazakhstan.
Bailina, Gulshat
  • Research Platform of Agricultural Biotechnology, S. Seifullin Kazakh Agrotechnical Research University, Astana 010011, Kazakhstan.
Smagulova, Ainura
  • Research Platform of Agricultural Biotechnology, S. Seifullin Kazakh Agrotechnical Research University, Astana 010011, Kazakhstan.
  • Laboratory of Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, National Center for Biotechnology, Astana 010011, Kazakhstan.
  • Scientific Center for Biological Research, Astana 010011, Kazakhstan.
Uakhit, Rabiga
  • Research Platform of Agricultural Biotechnology, S. Seifullin Kazakh Agrotechnical Research University, Astana 010011, Kazakhstan.
  • Laboratory of Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, National Center for Biotechnology, Astana 010011, Kazakhstan.
  • Scientific Center for Biological Research, Astana 010011, Kazakhstan.
Kiyan, Vladimir
  • Laboratory of Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, National Center for Biotechnology, Astana 010011, Kazakhstan.
  • Scientific Center for Biological Research, Astana 010011, Kazakhstan.

Grant Funding

  • AP19678812 / Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

References

This article includes 108 references
  1. Young A. Ringworm in Horses (Dermatophytosis). UC Davis Veterinary Medicine Center for Equine Health; Davis, CA, USA: 2022.
  2. Cafarchia C, Figueredo L.A, Otranto D. Fungal Diseases of Horses. Vet. Microbiol. 2013;167:215–234.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.01.015pubmed: 23428378google scholar: lookup
  3. Fadok V.A. An overview of equine dermatoses characterized by scaling and crusting. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 1995;11:43–51.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30330-9pubmed: 7634164google scholar: lookup
  4. Berdybaev U.B. Fungal Diseases in Kazakhstan. Kazgosizdat; Almaty, Kazakhstan: 1959; pp. 3–65.
  5. Nussipov Y, Markabayeva A, Gianfaldoni S, Tchernev G, Wollina U, Lotti J, Roccia M.G, Fioranelli M, Lotti T. Clinical and epidemiological features of dermatophyte infections in Almaty, Kazakhstan. Open Access Maced. J. Med. Sci. 2017;5:409–413.
    doi: 10.3889/oamjms.2017.124pmc: PMC5535645pubmed: 28785320google scholar: lookup
  6. Kukhar Y, Kiyan V, Smagulova A, Nikulina A. Identification of dermatomycetes isolated from people and animals with dermatophytoses on the territory of Kazakhstan. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci. 2019;7:21–27.
  7. White S.D. Equine Bacterial and Fungal Diseases: A Diagnostic and Therapeutic Update. Clin. Tech. Equine Pract. 2005;4:302–310.
    doi: 10.1053/j.ctep.2005.10.004google scholar: lookup
  8. Kane J, Padhye A.A, Ajello L. Microsporum equinum in North America. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1982;16:943–947.
    doi: 10.1128/jcm.16.5.943-947.1982pmc: PMC272506pubmed: 7153343google scholar: lookup
  9. Romano C, Massai L, Gianni C, Crosti C. Case Reports: Six Cases of Infection Due to Trichophyton verrucosum. Mycoses 2001;44:334–337.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2001.00638.xpubmed: 11714072google scholar: lookup
  10. Scott D.W. Marked Acantholysis Associated with Dermatophytosis Due to Trichophyton equinum in Two Horses. Vet. Dermatol. 1994;5:105–110.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3164.1994.tb00021.xpubmed: 34645068google scholar: lookup
  11. Scott D.W, Miller W.H. Equine Dermatology. WB Saunders; St. Louis, MO, USA: 2003. p. 96.
  12. Pier A.C, Zancanella P.J. Immunization of horses against dermatophytosis caused by Trichophyton equinum. Equine Pract. 1993;15:23–27.
  13. Keller M, Krehon S, Stanek C, Rosengarten R. Keratinopathogenic mould fungi and dermatophytes in healthy and diseased hooves of horses. Vet. Rec. 2000;147:619–622.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.147.22.619pubmed: 11128074google scholar: lookup
  14. Kaleybar M.T, Inalou A.H, Katiraee F. Clinical and mycological evaluations of horses affected with cutaneous lesions in Ardabil, Iran. J. Zoonotic Dis. 2021;5:42–49.
    doi: 10.22034/jzd.2021.44548.1102google scholar: lookup
  15. Blackford J. Superficial and Deep Mycoses in Horses. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Large Anim. Pract. 1984;6:47–58.
    doi: 10.1016/S0196-9846(17)30038-1pubmed: 6377658google scholar: lookup
  16. Gnat S, Łagowski D. Fungal infections in horses. Part I. Dermatomycoses and keratomycoses. Vet. Life A Socio-Prof. Sci. J. Natl. Vet. Med. Chamb. 2021;96:260–267.
  17. Padalino B, Sandy J.R, Barrasso R, Trotta A, Bozzo G, Cafarchia C. Rare generalized form of fungal dermatitis in a horse: Case report. Animals 2020;10:871.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10050871pmc: PMC7278430pubmed: 32429596google scholar: lookup
  18. Figueredo L.A, Cafarchia C, Otranto D. Geotrichum candidum as etiological agent of horse dermatomycosis. Vet. Microbiol. 2011;148:368–371.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.09.025pubmed: 20970928google scholar: lookup
  19. Kuwano A, Tanaka K, Kawabata M, Ooi Y, Takahashi R, Reilly J.D. A survey of white line disease in Japanese racehorses. Equine Vet. J. 1999;31:515–518.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03861.xpubmed: 10596935google scholar: lookup
  20. Ovchinnikov R.S, Manoyan M.G, Panin A.N. Emergent fungal infections of animals: New species of pathogens. Vet. Pharm. 2014;2:48–51.
  21. Bennett A, Ponder M.M, Garcia-Diaz J. Phoma infections: Classification, potential food sources, and its clinical impact. Microorganisms 2018;6:58.
    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms6030058pmc: PMC6165263pubmed: 29937481google scholar: lookup
  22. Konkel Neabore L. Wake-up Call: Rapid Increase in Human Fungal Diseases under Climate Change. Environ. Health Perspect. 2024;132:42001.
    doi: 10.1289/EHP14722pmc: PMC11034633pubmed: 38648197google scholar: lookup
  23. Gurung S.K, Adhikari M, Kim S.W, Bazie S, Kim H.S, Lee H.G, Kosol S, Lee H.B, Lee Y.S. Discovery of two Chrysosporium species with keratinolytic activity from field soil in Korea. Mycobiology 2018;46:260–268.
    doi: 10.1080/12298093.2018.1514732pmc: PMC6171419pubmed: 30294486google scholar: lookup
  24. Mitola G, Escalona F, Salas R, García E, Ledesma A. Morphological characterization of in-vitro human hair keratinolysis, produced by identified wild strains of Chrysosporium species. Mycopathologia 2002;156:163–169.
    doi: 10.1023/A:1023340826584pubmed: 12749579google scholar: lookup
  25. Grahn B, Wolfer J, Keller C, Wilcock B. Equine keratomycosis: Clinical and laboratory findings in 23 cases. Prog. Vet. Comp. Ophthalmol. 1993;3:2–7.
  26. Pin D, Vidémont E, Derian-Autier D, Guillot J, Plouzeau E. First description of onychomycosis caused by Chrysosporium keratinophilum in captive Bennett’s wallabies (Macropus rufogriseus rufogriseus). J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 2011;42:156–159.
    doi: 10.1638/2010-0129.1pubmed: 22946390google scholar: lookup
  27. Al-Musallam A, Tan C.S. Chrysosporium zonatum, a new keratinophilic fungus. Persoonia 1989;14:69–71.
  28. Ovchinnikov R.S, Vasyliev D.B. Pathogenic Chrysosporium-Related Fungi in Reptiles and Other Animals. Springer; Singapore: 2019.
    doi: 10.1007/978-981-13-9435-5_3google scholar: lookup
  29. Kizerwetter-Świda M, Bąk I, Biegańska M.J, Dembele K, Chrobak-Chmiel D. Chrysosporium articulatum mimicking Trichophyton spp. infection in a cat: A case presentation and literature review. BMC Vet. Res. 2024;20:359.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-024-04185-7pmc: PMC11316419pubmed: 39127672google scholar: lookup
  30. Labuda R, Bernreiter A, Hochenauer D, Kubátová A, Kandemir H, Schüller C. Molecular systematics of Keratinophyton: The inclusion of species formerly referred to Chrysosporium and description of four new species. IMA Fungus 2021;12:17.
    doi: 10.1186/s43008-021-00070-2pmc: PMC8265132pubmed: 34233753google scholar: lookup
  31. Boehm T.M, Mueller R.S. Dermatophytosis in dogs and cats—An update. Tierarztl. Prax. Ausg. K Kleintiere Heimtiere 2019;47:257–268.
    doi: 10.1055/a-0969-1446pubmed: 31434126google scholar: lookup
  32. Ajello L. Soil as a natural reservoir for human pathogenic fungi. Science 1956;123:876–879.
    doi: 10.1126/science.123.3203.876pubmed: 13324104google scholar: lookup
  33. Kidd S.E, Weldhagen G.F. Diagnosis of Dermatophytes: From Microscopy to Direct PCR. Microbiology 2022;43:9–13.
    doi: 10.1071/MA22005google scholar: lookup
  34. Ogórek R, Suchodolski J, Piecuch A, Przywara K, Višňovská Z. Keratinophilic and keratinolytic fungi in cave ecosystems: A culture-based study of Brestovská Cave and Demänovská Ľadová and Slobody Caves (Slovakia). Appl. Sci. 2022;12:1455.
    doi: 10.3390/app12031455google scholar: lookup
  35. Jain N, Sharma M. Influence of temperature and culture conditions on the survival of keratinophilic and dermatophytic fungi. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 2022;65:e22210337.
    doi: 10.1590/1678-4324-2022210337google scholar: lookup
  36. Lott M.J, Moore R.L, Milic N.L, Power M, Shilton C.M, Isberg S.R. Dermatological conditions of farmed crocodilians: A review of pathogenic agents and their proposed impact on skin quality. Vet. Microbiol. 2018;225:89–100.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2018.09.022pubmed: 30322539google scholar: lookup
  37. Saidi S.A, Bhatt S, Richard J.L, Sikdar A, Ghosh G.R. Chrysosporium tropicum as a probable cause of mycosis of poultry in India. Mycopathologia 1994;125:143–147.
    doi: 10.1007/BF01146518pubmed: 8047104google scholar: lookup
  38. Yamaguchi S, Sano A, Hiruma M, Murata M, Kaneshima T, Murata Y, Takahashi H, Takahashi S, Takahashi Y, Chibana H. Isolation of dermatophytes and related species from domestic fowl (Gallus gallus Domesticus). Mycopathologia 2014;178:135–143.
    doi: 10.1007/s11046-014-9758-0pubmed: 24952716google scholar: lookup
  39. Watt P.R, Robins G.M, Galloway A.M, O’Boyle D.A. Disseminated opportunistic fungal disease in dogs: 10 cases (1982–1990). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1995;207:67–70.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.1995.207.01.67pubmed: 7601696google scholar: lookup
  40. Hajsig M, de Vries G.A, Sertic V, Naglic T. Chrysosporium evolceanui from pathologically changed dog skin. Vet. Arh. 1974;44:209–211.
  41. Scott E.M, Carter R.T. Canine keratomycosis in 11 dogs: A case series (2000–2011). J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc. 2014;50:112–118.
    doi: 10.5326/JAAHA-MS-6012pubmed: 24446397google scholar: lookup
  42. Cook E, Meler E, Garrett K, Long H, Mak K, Stephens C, Thompson A. Disseminated Chrysosporium infection in a German shepherd dog. Med. Mycol. Case Rep. 2016;10:29–33.
    doi: 10.1016/j.mmcr.2016.01.002pmc: PMC4769606pubmed: 26937338google scholar: lookup
  43. Dokuzeylul B, Basaran Kahraman B, Sigirci B.D, Gulluoglu E, Metiner K, Or M.E. Dermatophytosis caused by a Chrysosporium species in two cats in Turkey: A case report. Vet. Med. 2013;5:633–646.
    doi: 10.17221/7187-VETMEDgoogle scholar: lookup
  44. Otcenasek M, Dvorak J. The isolation of Chrysosporium keratinophilum (Frey) Carmichael 1962 and similar fungi from Czechoslovakian soil. Mycopathologia 1964;23:121–124.
    pubmed: 14205727
  45. Abdel-Razik M, Zaki S.M. Experimental pathogenicity and molecular characterization of an environmental isolate of Chrysosporium zonatum Al-Musallam and Tan (Family: Onygenaceae, Order: Onygenales). Int. J. Agric. Biol. 2008;10:273–277.
  46. Sur B, Ghosh G.R. Keratinophilic fungi from Orissa, India, II: Isolations from feathers of wild birds and domestic fowls. Sabouraudia 1980;18:275–280.
    doi: 10.1080/00362178085380471pubmed: 6161420google scholar: lookup
  47. Gründer S, Mayser P, Redmann T, Kaleta E.F. Mycological examinations on the fungal flora of the chicken comb. Mycoses 2005;48:114–119.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0507.2004.01074.xpubmed: 15743428google scholar: lookup
  48. Rippon J.W. Adiaspiromycosis. In: Rippon J.W., editor. Medical Mycology. W.B. Saunders; Philadelphia, PA, USA: 1982. pp. 645–648.
  49. Hughes K, Borman A.M. Adiaspiromycosis in a wild European rabbit, and a review of the literature. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2018;30:614–618.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638718772631pmc: PMC6505896pubmed: 29717642google scholar: lookup
  50. Khalaf D.D, Abouelhag H.A, Elnomrosy S.M, Ela N.H.A, AbdAllah M.I, Farahat E. Molecular identification and phylogenetic classification of fungal pathogens isolated from Egyptian Arabian horses. Int. J. Vet. Sci. 2025;14:165–170.
    doi: 10.47278/journal.ijvs/2024.228google scholar: lookup
  51. Wijayawardene N.N, Hyde K.D, Al-Ani L.K.T, Tedersoo L, Haelewaters D, Rajeshkumar K.C, Zhao R.L, Aptroot A, Leontyev D.V, Saxena R.K. Outline of Fungi and fungus-like taxa. Mycosphere 2020;11:1060–1456.
    doi: 10.5943/mycosphere/11/1/8google scholar: lookup
  52. Kidd S, Halliday C, Alexiou H, Ellis D. Description of Medical Fungi. 3rd ed. The National Library of Australia Cataloguing; Adelaide, Australia: 2016. 264p Newstyle Printing.
  53. Kukhar E.V, Kurmanov B.A, Kiyan V.S, Egorcheva E.V, Muranets A.P, Sharipova A.M, Panchenko N.A, Nikulina A.I. Changes in the traditional spectrum of pathogens of trichophytosis of cattle in Kazakhstan. Proceedings of the Role of Veterinary Science and Practice in the Effective Development of Animal Husbandry: Materials of Int. Scientific-Practical. Conf., LLP “Kazakh Research Institute of Veterinary Medicine”; Almaty, Kazakhstan. 25–26 October 2012; pp. 333–340. (In Russian).
  54. Umitzhanov M, Bizhanov B.R, Boranbayeva R.S, Arisbekova A.T, Tokeyev S.O. Vaccinal compounds and vaccines used in the Republic of Kazakhstan against dermatomycosis of agricultural animals and carnivores. Proceedings of the International Scientific and Practical Conference “Research Progress—2009”; Sofia, Bulgaria. 17–25 February 2009; pp. 53–54. (In Russian).
  55. Kemaykin V, Tabinbaev N, Khudaibergenova M, Olifirovich A, Abdrakhmanova L, Denning D, Klimko N. An estimate of severe and chronic fungal diseases in the Republic of Kazakhstan. J. Fungi. 2018;4:34.
    doi: 10.3390/jof4010034pmc: PMC5872337pubmed: 29518045google scholar: lookup
  56. Aimoldina A, Smagulova A, Batpenova G, Konnikov N, Algazina T, Jetpisbayeva Z, Azanbayeva D, Amantayev D, Kiyan V. Mycological Profile and Associated Factors Among Patients with Dermatophytosis in Astana, Kazakhstan. J. Fungi. 2025;11:65.
    doi: 10.3390/jof11010065pmc: PMC11766580pubmed: 39852485google scholar: lookup
  57. Ivanushkina N.E. Genus Aspergillus: Nomenclature, classification, distribution. In: Dyakov Y.T., Sergeev Y.V., editors. New in Taxonomy and Nomenclature of Fungi. National Academy of Mycology; Moscow, Russia: 2003. pp. 136–165. (In Russian).
  58. Kukhar Y, Kiyan V. Biological properties of anamorphe and teleomorphe of the causing agent of human interdigital trichophythy. Exp. Biol. 2022;1:113–125.
    doi: 10.26577/eb.2022.v90.i1.10google scholar: lookup
  59. Elinov N.P, Vasilyeva N.V, Raznatovsky K.I. Dermatomycoses, or superficial mycoses of the skin and its appendages—Hair and nails. Laboratory diagnostics. Probl. Med. Mycol. 2008;10:27–34. (In Russian).
  60. Umitzhanov M, Abdiramanova B, Abutalip A, Bakirov N, Sarimbekova S. Comparative assessment of regulated methods and PCR in the diagnosis of trichophytosis in veterinary mycology. Open Vet. J. 2023;13:1614–1622.
    doi: 10.5455/OVJ.2023.v13.i12.11pmc: PMC10824085pubmed: 38292703google scholar: lookup
  61. . The Development of Science-Based Guidelines for Laboratory Animal Care: Proceedings of the November 2003 International Workshop. National Research Council (US) Institute for Laboratory Animal Research; National Academies Press (US); Washington, DC, USA: 2004. [(accessed on 2 April 2025)]. Available online: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK25438/.
    pubmed: 20669462
  62. Ajello L, Georg L.K, Kaplan W, Kaulman L. Laboratory Manual for Medical Mycology. US Department of Health Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Communicable Disease Centre; Atlanta, GA, USA: 1966.
  63. Robert R, Pihet M. Conventional Methods for the Diagnosis of Dermatophytosis. Mycopathologia 2008;166:295–306.
    doi: 10.1007/s11046-008-9106-3pubmed: 18478359google scholar: lookup
  64. Tamura T, Sato T, Matsumoto M, Hara H, Yamaguchi M, Imai S, Yoshida M, Kobayashi T, Kobayashi H, Kobayashi Y. Evaluation of sugar fermentation and assimilation by fungal isolates from farm animals. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2015;118:1567–1575.
    doi: 10.1111/jam.12720google scholar: lookup
  65. Lerm B, Kenyon C, Schwartz I.S, Kroukamp H, de Witt R, Govender N.P, de Hoog G.S, Botha A. First report of urease activity in the novel systemic fungal pathogen Emergomyces africanus: A comparison with the neurotrope Cryptococcus neoformans. FEMS Yeast Res. 2017;17:fox069.
    doi: 10.1093/femsyr/fox069pubmed: 28934415google scholar: lookup
  66. Saleem S. Proteolytic Activity and Health Impact of Fungi Isolated from Chickens Feathers in House Breeding Cages. Int. J. Agric. Biol. 2023;29:154–160.
  67. Kirtsideli I.U, Kachalkin A.V, Sokolova D.S. Diversity and enzymatic activity of soil micromycetes. Mycol. Phytopathol. 2010;44:375–384.
  68. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Reference Method for Broth Dilution Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing of Filamentous Fungi. 2nd ed. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; Wayne, PA, USA: 2008. M38-A2.
  69. Wayne P. Approved Guideline CLSI Document M44-A2. 2nd ed. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute; Wayne, PA, USA: 2009. Method for Antifungal Disk Diffusion Susceptibility Testing of Yeast.
  70. Kukhar E.V, Sharipova A.M, Shevtsov A.B. Selection of a method for isolating DNA from dermatophytes and other micromycetes. Probl. Med. Mycol. 2013;15:95.
  71. Psifidi A, Dovas C.I, Bramis G, Lazou T, Russel C.L, Arsenos G, Banos G. Comparison of Eleven Methods for Genomic DNA Extraction Suitable for Large-Scale Whole-Genome Genotyping and Long-Term DNA Banking Using Blood Samples. PLoS ONE 2015;10:e0115960.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115960pmc: PMC4312062pubmed: 25635817google scholar: lookup
  72. White T.J, Bruns T, Lee S, Taylor J. PCR Protocols: A Guide to Methods and Applications. Volume 38. Academic Press; Cambridge, MA, USA: 1990. Amplification and Direct Sequencing of Fungal Ribosomal RNA Genes for Phylogenetics; pp. 315–322.
  73. Tamura K, Stecher G, Kumar S. MEGA11: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis Version 11. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2021;38:3022–3027.
    doi: 10.1093/molbev/msab120pmc: PMC8233496pubmed: 33892491google scholar: lookup
  74. Steininger C, van Lunzen J, Sobottka I, Rohde H, Horstkotte M.A, Stellbrink H.J. Mycotic Brain Abscess Caused by Opportunistic Reptile Pathogen. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2005;11:349–350.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1102.040915pmc: PMC3320450pubmed: 15759342google scholar: lookup
  75. Han J.I, Lee S.J, Na K.J. Necrotizing Dermatomycosis Caused by Chrysosporium spp. in Three Captive Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana) in South Korea. J. Exot. Pet Med. 2010;19:240–244.
    doi: 10.1053/j.jepm.2010.07.008google scholar: lookup
  76. Cabañes F.J, Sutton D.A, Guarro J. Chrysosporium-Related Fungi and Reptiles: A Fatal Attraction. PLoS Pathog. 2014;10:e1004367.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004367pmc: PMC4199725pubmed: 25329049google scholar: lookup
  77. Abarca M.L, Martorell J, Castellá G, Ramis A, Cabañes F.J. Dermatomycosis in a Pet Inland Bearded Dragon (Pogona vitticeps) Caused by a Chrysosporium Species Related to Nannizziopsis vriesii. Vet. Dermatol. 2009;20:295–299.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3164.2009.00736.xpubmed: 19659541google scholar: lookup
  78. Bertelsen M.F, Crawshaw G.J, Sigler L, Smith D.A. Fatal Cutaneous Mycosis in Tentacled Snakes (Erpeton tentaculatum) Caused by the Chrysosporium Anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 2005;36:82–87.
    doi: 10.1638/04-020pubmed: 17315461google scholar: lookup
  79. Bowman M.R, Paré J.A, Sigler L, Naeser J.P, Sladky K.K, Hanley C.S, Helmer P, Phillips L.A, Brower A, Porter R. Deep Fungal Dermatitis in Three Inland Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps) Caused by Chrysosporium Anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii. Med. Mycol. 2007;45:371–376.
    doi: 10.1080/13693780601188610pubmed: 17510861google scholar: lookup
  80. Hedley J, Eatwell K, Hume L. Necrotising Fungal Dermatitis in a Group of Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps). Vet. Rec. 2010;166:464–465.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.b4816pubmed: 20382936google scholar: lookup
  81. Hellebuyck T, Baert K, Pasmans F, Van Waeyenberghe L, Beernaert L, Chiers K, De Backer P, Haesebrouck F, Martel A. Cutaneous Hyalohyphomycosis in a Girdled Lizard (Cordylus giganteus) Caused by the Chrysosporium Anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii and Successful Treatment with Voriconazole. Vet. Dermatol. 2010;21:429–433.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3164.2010.00880.xpubmed: 20492624google scholar: lookup
  82. Johnson R.S.P, Sangster C.R, Sigler L, Hambleton S, Paré J.A. Deep Fungal Dermatitis Caused by the Chrysosporium Anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii in Captive Coastal Bearded Dragons (Pogona barbata). Aust. Vet. J. 2011;89:515–519.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2011.00851.xpubmed: 22103953google scholar: lookup
  83. Nichols D.K, Weyant R.S, Lamirande E.W, Sigler L, Mason R.T. Fatal Mycotic Dermatitis in Captive Brown Tree Snakes (Boiga irregularis). J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 1999;30:111–118.
    pubmed: 10367652
  84. Paré J.A, Sigler L, Hunter D.B, Summerbell R.C, Smith D.A, Machin K.L. Cutaneous Mycoses in Chameleons Caused by the Chrysosporium Anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (Apinis) Currah. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 1997;28:443–453.
    pubmed: 9523639
  85. Thomas A.D, Sigler L, Peucker S, Norton J.H, Nielan A. Chrysosporium Anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii Associated with Fatal Cutaneous Mycoses in the Salt-Water Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus). Med. Mycol. 2002;40:143–151.
    doi: 10.1080/mmy.40.2.143.151pubmed: 12058727google scholar: lookup
  86. Abarca M.L, Martorell J, Castella G, Ramis A, Cabanes F.J. Cutaneous Hyalohyphomycosis Caused by a Chrysosporium Species Related to Nannizziopsis vriesii in Two Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana). Med. Mycol. 2008;46:349–354.
    doi: 10.1080/13693780701851711pubmed: 18415842google scholar: lookup
  87. Van Waeyenberghe L, Baert K, Pasmans F, van Rooij P, Hellebuyck T, Beernaert L, de Backer P, Haesebrouck F, Martel A. Voriconazole, a Safe Alternative for Treating Infections Caused by the Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii in Bearded Dragons (Pogona vitticeps). Med. Mycol. 2010;48:880–885.
    doi: 10.3109/13693781003743122pubmed: 20370369google scholar: lookup
  88. Paré J.A, Sigler L, Rypien K.L, Gibas C.F.C. Cutaneous Mycobiota of Captive Squamate Reptiles with Notes on the Scarcity of Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii. J. Herpetol. Med. Surg. 2003;13:10–15.
    doi: 10.5818/1529-9651.13.4.10google scholar: lookup
  89. Paré J.A, Sigler L, Rosenthal K.L, Mader D.R. Microbiology: Fungal and Bacterial Diseases of Reptiles. In: Mader D.R., editor. Reptile Medicine and Surgery. 2nd ed. Saunders Elsevier; St. Louis, MO, USA: 2006. pp. 217–238.
  90. Paré J.A, Coyle K.A, Sigler L, Maas A.K, Mitchell R.L. Pathogenicity of the Chrysosporium Anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii for Veiled Chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus). Med. Mycol. 2006;44:25–31.
    doi: 10.1080/13693780500165461pubmed: 16805090google scholar: lookup
  91. Allender M.C, Dreslik M, Wylie S, Phillips C, Wylie D.B, Maddox C, Delaney M.A, Kinsel M.J. Chrysosporium sp. Infection in Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnakes. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2011;17:2383–2384.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1712.110240pmc: PMC3311193pubmed: 22172594google scholar: lookup
  92. Schmidt-Ukaj S, Loncaric I, Klang A, Spergser J, Häbich A.-C, Knotek Z. Infection with Devriesea agamarum and Chrysosporium guarroi in an inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps). Vet. Dermatol. 2014;25:555-e97.
    doi: 10.1111/vde.12146pubmed: 24963553google scholar: lookup
  93. Prabhakar A.L.M.S, Siddiqui A.S.U, Wani A.H, Mehta N.K, O’Neill C.W.J. Case Report. A disseminated infection due to Chrysosporium queenslandicum in a garter snake (Thamnophis). Mycoses 1999;42:107–110.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1439-0507.1999.00409.xpubmed: 10394858google scholar: lookup
  94. Abarca M.L, Martorell J, Castella G, Cabanes F.J. Chrysosporium guarroi sp. nov. a New Emerging Pathogen of Pet Green Iguanas (Iguana iguana). Med. Mycol. 2010;48:365–372.
    doi: 10.3109/13693780903173401pubmed: 19675967google scholar: lookup
  95. Rajeev S, Sutton D.A, Wickes B.L, Miller D.L, Giri D, Van Meter M, Thompson E.H, Rinaldi M.G, Romanelli A.M, Cano J.F. Isolation and characterization of a new fungal species, Chrysosporium ophiodiicola from a mycotic granuloma of a black rat snake (Elaphe obsolete obsolete). J. Clin. Microbiol. 2009;47:1264–1268.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.01751-08pmc: PMC2668353pubmed: 19109465google scholar: lookup
  96. Elad D. Disseminated canine mold infections. Vet. J. 2019;243:82–90.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2018.11.016pubmed: 30606445google scholar: lookup
  97. Smagulova A.M, Glotova T.I, Kukhar E.V. Spectrum of pathogens causing skin mycoses in domestic and wild animals in Kazakhstan and the West Siberian region of Russia. Adv. Med. Mycol. 2023;15:37–41.
  98. Kukhar E.V, Kiyan V.S, Leontyev S.V, Smagulova A.M. Spread of pathogens causing mycoses of the skin of wild game animals in some regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan. Proceedings of the Fundamental Science and Priorities of the 21st Century: Proceedings International Scientific and Practical Conference; Astana, Kazakhstan. 29 November 2024; 2025. pp. 325–335. (In Russian).
  99. Warwick A, Ferrieri P, Burke B, Blazar B.R. Presumptive Invasive Chrysosporium Infection in a Bone Marrow Transplant Recipient. Bone Marrow Transplant. 1991;8:319–322.
    pubmed: 1756331
  100. Dincy P.C, Meera T, Susanne P.A, Promila R.M. Disseminated Cutaneous Chrysosporium Infection. Trop. Dr. 2019;49:306–308.
    doi: 10.1177/0049475519845779pubmed: 31179890google scholar: lookup
  101. Stebbins W.G, Krishtul A, Bottone E.J, Phelps R, Cohen S. Cutaneous Adiaspiromycosis: A Distinct Dermatologic Entity Associated with Chrysosporium Species. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2004;51:S185–S189.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jaad.2004.04.036pubmed: 15577766google scholar: lookup
  102. Suchonwanit P, Chaiyabutr C, Vachiramon V. Primary Cutaneous Chrysosporium Infection Following Ear Piercing: A Case Report. Case Rep. Dermatol. 2015;7:136–140.
    doi: 10.1159/000436989pmc: PMC4519602pubmed: 26269703google scholar: lookup
  103. Pare J.A, Jacobson E.R. Mycotic diseases of reptiles. In: Jacobson E.R., editor. Infectious Diseases and Pathology of Reptiles: Color Atlas and Text. CRC Press; Boca Raton, FL, USA: Taylor and Francis; Abingdon, UK: 2007. pp. 527–570.
  104. Lorch J.M, Knowles S, Lankton J.S, Michell K, Edwards J.L, Kapfer J.M, Staffen R.A, Wild E.R, Schmidt K.Z, Ballmann A.E. Snake fungal disease: An emerging threat to wild snakes. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci. 2016;371:20150457.
    doi: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0457pmc: PMC5095536pubmed: 28080983google scholar: lookup
  105. Bailina G.E, Kuchar E.V, Kiyan V.S, Smagulova A.M. Spectrum of opportunistic mycosis pathogens in domestic and farm animals in Kazakhstan. P.N. Kashkin Res. Inst. Med. Mycol. Probl. Med. Mycol. 2023 25:84. [(accessed on 2 April 2025)]; Available online: https://mycology.szgmu.ru/images/2-2023.pdf. (In Russian).
  106. Borovkova K.E, Makarova M.N, Nikiforova L.R, Salmova Y.V. Animal models of fungal infections. Lab. Anim. Sci. Res. 2021;3:25–48.
    doi: 10.29296/2618723X-2021-03-05google scholar: lookup
  107. Chabasse D, De Gentile L, Bouchara J.P. Pathogenicity of some Chrysosporium species isolated in France. Mycopathologia 1989;106:171–177.
    doi: 10.1007/BF00443059pubmed: 2811980google scholar: lookup
  108. Langfeldt A, Gold J.A.W, Chiller T. Emerging Fungal Infections: From the Fields to the Clinic, Resistant Aspergillus fumigatus and Dermatophyte Species: A One Health Perspective on an Urgent Public Health Problem. Curr. Clin. Microbiol. Rep. 2022;9:46–51.
    doi: 10.1007/s40588-022-00181-3pmc: PMC9512973pubmed: 36188157google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.