FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
BMC veterinary research2017; 13(1); 313; doi: 10.1186/s12917-017-1240-z

Characterization of respiratory dendritic cells from equine lung tissues.

Abstract: Dendritic cells (DCs) are professional antigen-presenting cells that have multiple subpopulations with different phenotypes and immune functions. Previous research demonstrated that DCs have strong potential for anti-viral defense in the host. However, viruses including alphaherpesvirinae have developed strategies to interfere with the function or maturation of DCs, causing immune dysfunction and avoidance of pathogen elimination. The goal of the present study was to isolate and characterize equine lung-derived DCs (L-DCs) for use in studies of respiratory viruses and compare their features with equine blood-derived DCs (B-DCs), which are currently used for these types of studies. Results: We found that L-DCs were morphologically similar to B-DCs. Overall, B-DCs demonstrated higher expression of CD86 and CD172α than L-DCs, but both cell types expressed high levels of MHC class II and CD44, as well as moderate amounts of CD163, CD204, and Bla36. In contrast, the endocytic activity of L-DCs was elevated compared to that of B-DCs. Finally, mononuclear cells isolated from lung (L-MCs), which are used as precursors for L-DCs, expressed more antigen-presenting cell-associated markers such as MHC class II and CD172α compared to their counterparts from blood. Conclusions: Our results indicate that L-DCs may be in an earlier differentiation stage compared to B-DCs. Concurrent with this observation, L-MCs possessed significantly more antigen-uptake capacity compared to their counterparts from blood. It is likely that L-DCs play an important role in antigen uptake and processing of respiratory pathogens and are major contributors to respiratory tract immunity and may be ideal tools for future in vitro or ex vivo studies.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2017-11-06 PubMed ID: 29110660PubMed Central: PMC5674750DOI: 10.1186/s12917-017-1240-zGoogle Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The article discusses the isolation and characterization of dendritic cells from equine lung tissues, in order to compare and study their features and responses against respiratory viruses. It was found that lung-derived dendritic cells, although at an early differentiation stage, exhibit enhanced antigen uptake ability which suggests a principal role in respiratory tract immunity.

Research Goals and Methods

  • The goal of the study was to isolate and characterize dendritic cells (DCs) originating from horse lung tissue and compare them to DCs from blood. These cells play a crucial role in processing and presenting antigens for the immune system.
  • The derivation of DCs from lung tissues aimed to enable further studies of respiratory viruses and their impacts on the immune system.
  • The methods involved using advanced lab techniques to isolate these cells from both lung tissue and blood cultures. They were then analyzed for differing phenotypes and immune responses.

Results of the Research

  • Lung-derived dendritic cells (L-DCs) were morphologically found to be quite similar to blood-derived dendritic cells (B-DCs).
  • B-DCs exhibited higher expression levels of certain immune markers (CD86 and CD172α) compared to L-DCs. However, both types of DCs notably expressed significant amounts of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II and CD44, as well as moderate amounts of CD163, CD204, and Bla36.
  • The endocytic activity (the process of internalizing antigens or pathogens) of L-DCs was higher than that of B-DCs, denoting an enhanced antigen uptake capacity of L-DCs.
  • Mononuclear cells isolated from lungs (L-MCs), the precursors for L-DCs, displayed more antigen-presenting cell-associated markers such as MHC class II and CD172α than their blood-derived counterparts.

Conclusions and Implications

  • L-DCs might be in an early differentiation stage compared to B-DCs, as suggested by the differences in antigen-uptake capabilities.
  • Given their enhanced antigen uptake and processing capabilities, L-DCs potentially play a major role in equine respiratory tract immunity.
  • These findings suggest that L-DCs could be useful in future in vitro or ex vivo studies exploring respiratory pathogens and their interactions with the equine immune response.

Cite This Article

APA
Lee Y, Kiupel M, Soboll Hussey G. (2017). Characterization of respiratory dendritic cells from equine lung tissues. BMC Vet Res, 13(1), 313. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12917-017-1240-z

Publication

BMC veterinary research
ISSN: 1746-6148
NlmUniqueID: 101249759
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 13
Issue: 1
Pages: 313
PII: 313

Researcher Affiliations

Lee, Yao
  • Department of Pathobiology & Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, 784 Wilson Rd, A13, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
Kiupel, Matti
  • Department of Pathobiology & Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, 784 Wilson Rd, A13, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
Soboll Hussey, Gisela
  • Department of Pathobiology & Diagnostic Investigation, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, 784 Wilson Rd, A13, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA. husseygi@msu.edu.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Antigen-Presenting Cells / cytology
  • Antigen-Presenting Cells / immunology
  • Cell Differentiation
  • Cells, Cultured
  • Dendritic Cells / cytology
  • Dendritic Cells / immunology
  • Female
  • Horses
  • Leukocytes, Mononuclear / cytology
  • Leukocytes, Mononuclear / immunology
  • Lung / cytology
  • Male

Conflict of Interest Statement

CONSENT FOR PUBLICATION: Not applicable. COMPETING INTERESTS: The authors declare that they have no competing interests. PUBLISHER’S NOTE: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

References

This article includes 50 references
  1. Mellman I, Steinman RM. Dendritic cells: specialized and regulated antigen processing machines.. Cell 2001 Aug 10;106(3):255-8.
    doi: 10.1016/S0092-8674(01)00449-4pubmed: 11509172google scholar: lookup
  2. Robinson SP, Patterson S, English N, Davies D, Knight SC, Reid CD. Human peripheral blood contains two distinct lineages of dendritic cells.. Eur J Immunol 1999 Sep;29(9):2769-78.
    doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1521-4141(199909)29:09<2769::AID-IMMU2769>3.0.CO;2-2pubmed: 10508251google scholar: lookup
  3. Hammond SA, Horohov D, Montelaro RC. Functional characterization of equine dendritic cells propagated ex vivo using recombinant human GM-CSF and recombinant equine IL-4.. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 1999 Nov 30;71(3-4):197-214.
    doi: 10.1016/S0165-2427(99)00094-Xpubmed: 10587301google scholar: lookup
  4. Siedek E, Little S, Mayall S, Edington N, Hamblin A. Isolation and characterisation of equine dendritic cells.. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 1997 Dec 12;60(1-2):15-31.
    doi: 10.1016/S0165-2427(97)00093-7pubmed: 9533264google scholar: lookup
  5. Sallusto F, Lanzavecchia A. Efficient presentation of soluble antigen by cultured human dendritic cells is maintained by granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor plus interleukin 4 and downregulated by tumor necrosis factor alpha.. J Exp Med 1994 Apr 1;179(4):1109-18.
    doi: 10.1084/jem.179.4.1109pmc: PMC2191432pubmed: 8145033google scholar: lookup
  6. Egner W, McKenzie JL, Smith SM, Beard ME, Hart DN. Identification of potent mixed leukocyte reaction-stimulatory cells in human bone marrow. Putative differentiation stage of human blood dendritic cells.. J Immunol 1993 Apr 1;150(7):3043-53.
    pubmed: 8454872
  7. Sertl K, Takemura T, Tschachler E, Ferrans VJ, Kaliner MA, Shevach EM. Dendritic cells with antigen-presenting capability reside in airway epithelium, lung parenchyma, and visceral pleura.. J Exp Med 1986 Feb 1;163(2):436-51.
    doi: 10.1084/jem.163.2.436pmc: PMC2188026pubmed: 3511172google scholar: lookup
  8. Pavli P, Maxwell L, Van de Pol E, Doe F. Distribution of human colonic dendritic cells and macrophages.. Clin Exp Immunol 1996 Apr;104(1):124-32.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.1996.d01-642.xpmc: PMC2200397pubmed: 8603517google scholar: lookup
  9. Prickett TC, McKenzie JL, Hart DN. Characterization of interstitial dendritic cells in human liver.. Transplantation 1988 Nov;46(5):754-61.
    doi: 10.1097/00007890-198811000-00024pubmed: 3057697google scholar: lookup
  10. Hart DN, Fabre JW. Demonstration and characterization of Ia-positive dendritic cells in the interstitial connective tissues of rat heart and other tissues, but not brain.. J Exp Med 1981 Aug 1;154(2):347-61.
    doi: 10.1084/jem.154.2.347pmc: PMC2186417pubmed: 6943285google scholar: lookup
  11. van Haarst JM, Hoogsteden HC, de Wit HJ, Verhoeven GT, Havenith CE, Drexhage HA. Dendritic cells and their precursors isolated from human bronchoalveolar lavage: immunocytologic and functional properties.. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 1994 Sep;11(3):344-50.
    doi: 10.1165/ajrcmb.11.3.8086170pubmed: 8086170google scholar: lookup
  12. Gong JL, McCarthy KM, Telford J, Tamatani T, Miyasaka M, Schneeberger EE. Intraepithelial airway dendritic cells: a distinct subset of pulmonary dendritic cells obtained by microdissection.. J Exp Med 1992 Mar 1;175(3):797-807.
    doi: 10.1084/jem.175.3.797pmc: PMC2119136pubmed: 1740664google scholar: lookup
  13. Jahnsen FL, Strickland DH, Thomas JA, Tobagus IT, Napoli S, Zosky GR, Turner DJ, Sly PD, Stumbles PA, Holt PG. Accelerated antigen sampling and transport by airway mucosal dendritic cells following inhalation of a bacterial stimulus.. J Immunol 2006 Nov 1;177(9):5861-7.
    doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.177.9.5861pubmed: 17056510google scholar: lookup
  14. Gonzalez-Juarrero M, Orme IM. Characterization of murine lung dendritic cells infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis.. Infect Immun 2001 Feb;69(2):1127-33.
    doi: 10.1128/IAI.69.2.1127-1133.2001pmc: PMC97994pubmed: 11160010google scholar: lookup
  15. Steinbach F, Borchers K, Ricciardi-Castagnoli P, Ludwig H, Stingl G, Elbe-Bürger A. Dendritic cells presenting equine herpesvirus-1 antigens induce protective anti-viral immunity.. J Gen Virol 1998 Dec;79 ( Pt 12):3005-14.
    doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-79-12-3005pubmed: 9880015google scholar: lookup
  16. Morel PA, Butterfield LH. Dendritic cell control of immune responses.. Front Immunol 2015;6:42.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00042pmc: PMC4318395pubmed: 25699058google scholar: lookup
  17. Ramirez-Ortiz ZG, Means TK. The role of dendritic cells in the innate recognition of pathogenic fungi (A. fumigatus, C. neoformans and C. albicans).. Virulence 2012 Nov 15;3(7):635-46.
    doi: 10.4161/viru.22295pmc: PMC3545945pubmed: 23076328google scholar: lookup
  18. Salio M, Cella M, Suter M, Lanzavecchia A. Inhibition of dendritic cell maturation by herpes simplex virus.. Eur J Immunol 1999 Oct;29(10):3245-53.
    doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1521-4141(199910)29:10<3245::AID-IMMU3245>3.0.CO;2-Xpubmed: 10540336google scholar: lookup
  19. Cotter CR, Nguyen ML, Yount JS, López CB, Blaho JA, Moran TM. The virion host shut-off (vhs) protein blocks a TLR-independent pathway of herpes simplex virus type 1 recognition in human and mouse dendritic cells.. PLoS One 2010 Feb 18;5(2):e8684.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0008684pmc: PMC2823768pubmed: 20174621google scholar: lookup
  20. Baghi HB, Nauwynck HJ. Impact of equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) infection on the migration of monocytic cells through equine nasal mucosa.. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2014 Dec;37(5-6):321-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cimid.2014.09.004pubmed: 25456193google scholar: lookup
  21. Quintana AM, Landolt GA, Annis KM, Hussey GS. Immunological characterization of the equine airway epithelium and of a primary equine airway epithelial cell culture model.. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2011 Apr 15;140(3-4):226-36.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2010.12.008pubmed: 21292331google scholar: lookup
  22. Lunn DP, Holmes MA, Antczak DF, Agerwal N, Baker J, Bendali-Ahcene S, Blanchard-Channell M, Byrne KM, Cannizzo K, Davis W, Hamilton MJ, Hannant D, Kondo T, Kydd JH, Monier MC, Moore PF, O'Neil T, Schram BR, Sheoran A, Stott JL, Sugiura T, Vagnoni KE. Report of the Second Equine Leucocyte Antigen Workshop, Squaw valley, California, July 1995.. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 1998 Mar 31;62(2):101-43.
    doi: 10.1016/S0165-2427(97)00160-8pubmed: 9638857google scholar: lookup
  23. Cobbold S, Metcalfe S. Monoclonal antibodies that define canine homologues of human CD antigens: summary of the First International Canine Leukocyte Antigen Workshop (CLAW).. Tissue Antigens 1994 Mar;43(3):137-54.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1399-0039.1994.tb02315.xpubmed: 8091414google scholar: lookup
  24. Loving CL, Brockmeier SL, Sacco RE. Differential type I interferon activation and susceptibility of dendritic cell populations to porcine arterivirus.. Immunology 2007 Feb;120(2):217-29.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2006.02493.xpmc: PMC2265861pubmed: 17116172google scholar: lookup
  25. Barnes KJ, Garner MM, Wise AG, Persiani M, Maes RK, Kiupel M. Herpes simplex encephalitis in a captive black howler monkey (Alouatta caraya).. J Vet Diagn Invest 2016 Jan;28(1):76-8.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638715613379pubmed: 26699521google scholar: lookup
  26. Baghi HB, Laval K, Favoreel H, Nauwynck HJ. Isolation and characterization of equine nasal mucosal CD172a + cells.. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2014 Feb 15;157(3-4):155-63.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2013.12.001pubmed: 24370377google scholar: lookup
  27. Demedts IK, Brusselle GG, Vermaelen KY, Pauwels RA. Identification and characterization of human pulmonary dendritic cells.. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2005 Mar;32(3):177-84.
    doi: 10.1165/rcmb.2004-0279OCpubmed: 15576669google scholar: lookup
  28. Holt PG, Oliver J, Bilyk N, McMenamin C, McMenamin PG, Kraal G, Thepen T. Downregulation of the antigen presenting cell function(s) of pulmonary dendritic cells in vivo by resident alveolar macrophages.. J Exp Med 1993 Feb 1;177(2):397-407.
    doi: 10.1084/jem.177.2.397pmc: PMC2190916pubmed: 8426110google scholar: lookup
  29. Mauel S, Steinbach F, Ludwig H. Monocyte-derived dendritic cells from horses differ from dendritic cells of humans and mice.. Immunology 2006 Apr;117(4):463-73.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2005.02319.xpmc: PMC1782256pubmed: 16556260google scholar: lookup
  30. Johnson P, Ruffell B. CD44 and its role in inflammation and inflammatory diseases.. Inflamm Allergy Drug Targets 2009 Jul;8(3):208-20.
    pubmed: 19601881doi: 10.2174/187152809788680994google scholar: lookup
  31. Weiss JM, Sleeman J, Renkl AC, Dittmar H, Termeer CC, Taxis S, Howells N, Hofmann M, Köhler G, Schöpf E, Ponta H, Herrlich P, Simon JC. An essential role for CD44 variant isoforms in epidermal Langerhans cell and blood dendritic cell function.. J Cell Biol 1997 Jun 2;137(5):1137-47.
    doi: 10.1083/jcb.137.5.1137pmc: PMC2136215pubmed: 9166413google scholar: lookup
  32. Rissoan MC, Soumelis V, Kadowaki N, Grouard G, Briere F, de Waal Malefyt R, Liu YJ. Reciprocal control of T helper cell and dendritic cell differentiation.. Science 1999 Feb 19;283(5405):1183-6.
    doi: 10.1126/science.283.5405.1183pubmed: 10024247google scholar: lookup
  33. Shahinian A, Pfeffer K, Lee KP, Kündig TM, Kishihara K, Wakeham A, Kawai K, Ohashi PS, Thompson CB, Mak TW. Differential T cell costimulatory requirements in CD28-deficient mice.. Science 1993 Jul 30;261(5121):609-12.
    doi: 10.1126/science.7688139pubmed: 7688139google scholar: lookup
  34. Seiffert M, Brossart P, Cant C, Cella M, Colonna M, Brugger W, Kanz L, Ullrich A, Bühring HJ. Signal-regulatory protein alpha (SIRPalpha) but not SIRPbeta is involved in T-cell activation, binds to CD47 with high affinity, and is expressed on immature CD34(+)CD38(-) hematopoietic cells.. Blood 2001 May 1;97(9):2741-9.
    doi: 10.1182/blood.V97.9.2741pubmed: 11313266google scholar: lookup
  35. Bimczok D, Sowa EN, Faber-Zuschratter H, Pabst R, Rothkötter HJ. Site-specific expression of CD11b and SIRPalpha (CD172a) on dendritic cells: implications for their migration patterns in the gut immune system.. Eur J Immunol 2005 May;35(5):1418-27.
    doi: 10.1002/eji.200425726pubmed: 15827962google scholar: lookup
  36. Epardaud M, Bonneau M, Payot F, Cordier C, Mégret J, Howard C, Schwartz-Cornil I. Enrichment for a CD26hi SIRP- subset in lymph dendritic cells from the upper aero-digestive tract.. J Leukoc Biol 2004 Sep;76(3):553-61.
    doi: 10.1189/jlb.0404223pubmed: 15197234google scholar: lookup
  37. Raymond M, Rubio M, Fortin G, Shalaby KH, Hammad H, Lambrecht BN, Sarfati M. Selective control of SIRP-alpha-positive airway dendritic cell trafficking through CD47 is critical for the development of T(H)2-mediated allergic inflammation.. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2009 Dec;124(6):1333-42.e1.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2009.07.021pubmed: 19748659google scholar: lookup
  38. Basak SK, Harui A, Stolina M, Sharma S, Mitani K, Dubinett SM, Roth MD. Increased dendritic cell number and function following continuous in vivo infusion of granulocyte macrophage-colony-stimulating factor and interleukin-4.. Blood 2002 Apr 15;99(8):2869-79.
    doi: 10.1182/blood.V99.8.2869pubmed: 11929777google scholar: lookup
  39. Sparwasser T, Koch ES, Vabulas RM, Heeg K, Lipford GB, Ellwart JW, Wagner H. Bacterial DNA and immunostimulatory CpG oligonucleotides trigger maturation and activation of murine dendritic cells.. Eur J Immunol 1998 Jun;28(6):2045-54.
    doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1521-4141(199806)28:06<2045::AID-IMMU2045>3.0.CO;2-8pubmed: 9645386google scholar: lookup
  40. Romani N, Reider D, Heuer M, Ebner S, Kämpgen E, Eibl B, Niederwieser D, Schuler G. Generation of mature dendritic cells from human blood. An improved method with special regard to clinical applicability.. J Immunol Methods 1996 Sep 27;196(2):137-51.
    doi: 10.1016/0022-1759(96)00078-6pubmed: 8841452google scholar: lookup
  41. Zeng L, Takeya M, Takahashi K. AM-3K, a novel monoclonal antibody specific for tissue macrophages and its application to pathological investigation.. J Pathol 1996 Feb;178(2):207-14.
    doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1096-9896(199602)178:2<207::AID-PATH427>3.0.CO;2-Gpubmed: 8683391google scholar: lookup
  42. Becker M, Cotena A, Gordon S, Platt N. Expression of the class A macrophage scavenger receptor on specific subpopulations of murine dendritic cells limits their endotoxin response.. Eur J Immunol 2006 Apr;36(4):950-60.
    doi: 10.1002/eji.200535660pubmed: 16552714google scholar: lookup
  43. Högger P, Dreier J, Droste A, Buck F, Sorg C. Identification of the integral membrane protein RM3/1 on human monocytes as a glucocorticoid-inducible member of the scavenger receptor cysteine-rich family (CD163).. J Immunol 1998 Aug 15;161(4):1883-90.
    pubmed: 9712057
  44. Ohnishi K, Komohara Y, Fujiwara Y, Takemura K, Lei X, Nakagawa T, Sakashita N, Takeya M. Suppression of TLR4-mediated inflammatory response by macrophage class A scavenger receptor (CD204).. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2011 Aug 5;411(3):516-22.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.06.161pubmed: 21756882google scholar: lookup
  45. Maniecki MB, Møller HJ, Moestrup SK, Møller BK. CD163 positive subsets of blood dendritic cells: the scavenging macrophage receptors CD163 and CD91 are coexpressed on human dendritic cells and monocytes.. Immunobiology 2006;211(6-8):407-17.
    doi: 10.1016/j.imbio.2006.05.019pubmed: 16920480google scholar: lookup
  46. Yi H, Yu X, Gao P, Wang Y, Baek SH, Chen X, Kim HL, Subjeck JR, Wang XY. Pattern recognition scavenger receptor SRA/CD204 down-regulates Toll-like receptor 4 signaling-dependent CD8 T-cell activation.. Blood 2009 Jun 4;113(23):5819-28.
    doi: 10.1182/blood-2008-11-190033pmc: PMC2700321pubmed: 19349620google scholar: lookup
  47. Verreck FA, de Boer T, Langenberg DM, van der Zanden L, Ottenhoff TH. Phenotypic and functional profiling of human proinflammatory type-1 and anti-inflammatory type-2 macrophages in response to microbial antigens and IFN-gamma- and CD40L-mediated costimulation.. J Leukoc Biol 2006 Feb;79(2):285-93.
    doi: 10.1189/jlb.0105015pubmed: 16330536google scholar: lookup
  48. Imam A, Stathopoulos E, Taylor CR. BLA.36: a glycoprotein specifically expressed on the surface of Hodgkin's and B cells.. Anticancer Res 1990 Jul-Aug;10(4):1095-104.
    pubmed: 1696446
  49. Gache Y, Pin D, Gagnoux-Palacios L, Carozzo C, Meneguzzi G. Correction of dog dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa by transplantation of genetically modified epidermal autografts.. J Invest Dermatol 2011 Oct;131(10):2069-78.
    doi: 10.1038/jid.2011.172pubmed: 21697889google scholar: lookup
  50. Valli V, Kiupel M, Bienzle D. Hematopoietic system. In: Maxie M, editor. Jubb, Kennedy, and Palmer's pathology of domestic animals. 6. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier; 2016. p. 237.

Citations

This article has been cited 3 times.
  1. Sage SE, Nicholson P, Peters LM, Leeb T, Jagannathan V, Gerber V. Single-cell gene expression analysis of cryopreserved equine bronchoalveolar cells. Front Immunol 2022;13:929922.
    doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.929922pubmed: 36105804google scholar: lookup
  2. Hussen J, Shawaf T, Al Humam NA, Alhojaily SM, Al-Sukruwah MA, Almathen F, Grandoni F. Flow Cytometric Analysis of Leukocyte Populations in the Lung Tissue of Dromedary Camels. Vet Sci 2022 Jun 10;9(6).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci9060287pubmed: 35737339google scholar: lookup
  3. Patel RS, Tomlinson JE, Divers TJ, Van de Walle GR, Rosenberg BR. Single-cell resolution landscape of equine peripheral blood mononuclear cells reveals diverse cell types including T-bet(+) B cells. BMC Biol 2021 Jan 22;19(1):13.
    doi: 10.1186/s12915-020-00947-5pubmed: 33482825google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,970 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.