FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Front Neurosci / Comparison of Muscle MEPs From Transcranial Magnetic and Ele...
Frontiers in neuroscience2020; 14; 570372; doi: 10.3389/fnins.2020.570372

Comparison of Muscle MEPs From Transcranial Magnetic and Electrical Stimulation and Appearance of Reflexes in Horses.

Abstract: Transcranial electrical (TES) and magnetic stimulation (TMS) are both used for assessment of the motor function of the spinal cord in horses. Muscular motor evoked potentials (mMEP) were compared intra-individually for both techniques in five healthy horses. mMEPs were measured twice at increasing stimulation intensity steps over the extensor carpi radialis (ECR), tibialis cranialis (TC), and caninus muscles. Significance was set at < 0.05. To support the hypothesis that both techniques induce extracranially elicited mMEPs, literature was also reviewed. Results: Both techniques show the presence of late mMEPs below the transcranial threshold appearing as extracranially elicited startle responses. The occurrence of these late mMEPs is especially important for interpretation of TMS tracings when coil misalignment can have an additional influence. Mean transcranial motor latency times (MLT; synaptic delays included) and conduction velocities (CV) of the ECR and TC were significantly different between both techniques: respectively, 4.2 and 5.5 ms (MLT -MLT ), and -7.7 and -9.9 m/s (CV -CV ). TMS and TES show intensity-dependent latency decreases of, respectively, -2.6 (ECR) and -2.7 ms (TC)/30% magnetic intensity and -2.6 (ECR) and -3.2 (TC) ms/30V. When compared to TMS, TES shows the lowest coefficients of variation and highest reproducibility and accuracy for MLTs. This is ascribed to the fact that TES activates a lower number of cascaded interneurons, allows for multipulse stimulation, has an absence of coil repositioning errors, and has less sensitivity for varying degrees of background muscle tonus. Real axonal conduction times and conduction velocities are most closely approximated by TES. Conclusions: Both intracranial and extracranial mMEPs inevitably carry characteristics of brainstem reflexes. To avoid false interpretations, transcranial mMEPs can be identified by a stepwise latency shortening of 15-20 ms when exceeding the transcranial motor threshold at increasing stimulation intensities. A ring block around the vertex is advised to reduce interference by extracranial mMEPs. mMEPs reflect the functional integrity of the route along the brainstem nuclei, extrapyramidal motor tracts, propriospinal neurons, and motoneurons. The corticospinal tract appears subordinate in horses. TMS and TES are interchangeable for assessing the functional integrity of motor functions of the spinal cord. However, TES reveals significantly shorter MLTs, higher conduction velocities, and better reproducibility.
Copyright © 2020 Journée, Journée, Berends, Reed, de Bruijn and Delesalle.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2020-09-25 PubMed ID: 33122992PubMed Central: PMC7571265DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.570372Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article titled “Comparison of Muscle MEPs From Transcranial Magnetic and Electrical Stimulation and Appearance of Reflexes in Horses” explores the effectiveness of two techniques, Transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) and Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), in assessing the motor function of the spinal cord in horses. The study concludes that while both methods are effective, TES provides significantly shorter muscle motor latency times, higher conduction velocities, and better reproducibility.

Study Overview

  • The study compared muscular motor evoked potentials (mMEPs), a method used to measure motor function, for both TES and TMS in five healthy horses. mMEPs were measured twice in increasing stimulation intensity over the extensor carpi radialis (ECR), tibialis cranialis (TC), and caninus muscles.
  • In order to support the hypothesis that both these techniques induce mMEPs extracranially, a literature review was also conducted.

Findings

  • The results showed that both TES and TMS techniques showed the presence of late mMEPs below the transcranial threshold, appearing as extracranially induced startle responses. The occurrence of these late mMEPs is particularly crucial when interpreting TMS tracings as coil misalignment can influence this.
  • The mean transcranial motor latency times (MLT) and conduction velocities (CV) of the ECR and TC were found to be significantly different between TMS and TES. TES showed shorter MLTs, higher CV, and greater reproducibility and accuracy.

Conclusion

  • The researchers concluded that both Intra-cranial and Extra-cranial mMEPs carry characteristics of brainstem reflexes, implying similar activation paths in both TMS and TES.
  • To prevent incorrect interpretations, the study suggests identifying transcranial mMEPs by a stepwise latency shortening of 15-20 ms when exceeding the transcranial motor threshold at increasing stimulation intensities. This strategy would reduce interference caused by extra-cranial mMEPs.
  • The researchers learned that mMEPs reflect the functional integrity of the route along the brainstem nuclei, extra-pyramidal motor tracts, proprio-spinal neurons, and moto-neurons. They also found that the corticospinal tract appears to be subordinate in horses.
  • Although TES and TMS are interchangeable for the assessment of the functional integrity of motor functions of the spinal cord, TES was found to be superior due to significantly shorter MLTs, higher conduction velocities, and better reproducibility.

Cite This Article

APA
Journée SL, Journée HL, Berends HI, Reed SM, de Bruijn CM, Delesalle CJG. (2020). Comparison of Muscle MEPs From Transcranial Magnetic and Electrical Stimulation and Appearance of Reflexes in Horses. Front Neurosci, 14, 570372. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2020.570372

Publication

Frontiers in neuroscience
ISSN: 1662-4548
NlmUniqueID: 101478481
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 14
Pages: 570372
PII: 570372

Researcher Affiliations

Journée, Sanne Lotte
  • Equine Diagnostics, Wyns, Netherlands.
  • Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Research Group of Comparative Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.
Journée, Henricus Louis
  • Department of Neurosurgery, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands.
  • Department of Orthopedics, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.
  • Department of Orthopedics, University Medical Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Berends, Hanneke Irene
  • Department of Orthopedics, University Medical Center Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Reed, Steven Michael
  • Rood & Riddle Equine Hospital, Lexington, KY, United States.
  • M.H. Gluck Equine Research Center, Department of Veterinary Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington KY, United States.
de Bruijn, Cornelis Marinus
  • Wolvega Equine Clinic, Oldeholtpade, Netherlands.
Delesalle, Cathérine John Ghislaine
  • Department of Virology, Parasitology and Immunology, Research Group of Comparative Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium.

References

This article includes 95 references
  1. Alstermark B, Isa T, Pettersson LG, Sasaki S. The C3-C4 propriospinal system in the cat and monkey: a spinal pre-motoneuronal centre for voluntary motor control.. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2007 Feb;189(2):123-40.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1748-1716.2006.01655.xpubmed: 17250564google scholar: lookup
  2. Alstermark B, Ogawa J, Isa T. Lack of monosynaptic corticomotoneuronal EPSPs in rats: disynaptic EPSPs mediated via reticulospinal neurons and polysynaptic EPSPs via segmental interneurons.. J Neurophysiol 2004 Apr;91(4):1832-9.
    doi: 10.1152/jn.00820.2003pubmed: 14602838google scholar: lookup
  3. Alvarez-Blanco S, Leon L, Valls-Solé J. The startle reaction to somatosensory inputs: different response pattern to stimuli of upper and lower limbs.. Exp Brain Res 2009 May;195(2):285-92.
    doi: 10.1007/s00221-009-1784-7pubmed: 19370344google scholar: lookup
  4. Amassian VE, Cracco RQ, Maccabee PJ. Focal stimulation of human cerebral cortex with the magnetic coil: a comparison with electrical stimulation.. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1989 Nov-Dec;74(6):401-16.
    doi: 10.1016/0168-5597(89)90029-4pubmed: 2480218google scholar: lookup
  5. Amassian VE, Eberle L, Maccabee PJ, Cracco RQ. Modelling magnetic coil excitation of human cerebral cortex with a peripheral nerve immersed in a brain-shaped volume conductor: the significance of fiber bending in excitation.. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1992 Oct;85(5):291-301.
    doi: 10.1016/0168-5597(92)90105-kpubmed: 1385089google scholar: lookup
  6. Andermann F, Keene DL, Andermann E, Quesney LF. Startle disease or hyperekplexia: further delineation of the syndrome.. Brain 1980 Dec;103(4):985-97.
    doi: 10.1093/brain/103.4.985pubmed: 6777025google scholar: lookup
  7. Añor S, Espadaler JM, Monreal L, Mayhew IG. Electrically induced blink reflex in horses.. Vet Rec 1996 Dec 21-28;139(25):621-4.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.139.25.621pubmed: 9123787google scholar: lookup
  8. Anor S, Espadaler JM, Monreal L, Pumarola M. Electrically elicited blink reflex in horses with trigeminal and facial nerve blocks.. Am J Vet Res 1999 Oct;60(10):1287-91.
    pubmed: 10791943
  9. Bakker MJ, van Dijk JG, van den Maagdenberg AM, Tijssen MA. Startle syndromes.. Lancet Neurol 2006 Jun;5(6):513-24.
    doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(06)70470-7pubmed: 16713923google scholar: lookup
  10. Boyd SG, Rothwell JC, Cowan JM, Webb PJ, Morley T, Asselman P, Marsden CD. A method of monitoring function in corticospinal pathways during scoliosis surgery with a note on motor conduction velocities.. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1986 Mar;49(3):251-7.
    doi: 10.1136/jnnp.49.3.251pmc: PMC1028723pubmed: 3958738google scholar: lookup
  11. Breazile JE, Jennings DP, Swafford BC. Conduction velocities in the corticospinal tract of the horse.. Exp Neurol 1967 Mar;17(3):357-63.
    doi: 10.1016/0014-4886(67)90112-4pubmed: 6019266google scholar: lookup
  12. Brown P, Rothwell JC, Thompson PD, Britton TC, Day BL, Marsden CD. New observations on the normal auditory startle reflex in man.. Brain 1991 Aug;114 ( Pt 4):1891-902.
    doi: 10.1093/brain/114.4.1891pubmed: 1884184google scholar: lookup
  13. Brown P, Rothwell JC, Thompson PD, Britton TC, Day BL, Marsden CD. The hyperekplexias and their relationship to the normal startle reflex.. Brain 1991 Aug;114 ( Pt 4):1903-28.
    doi: 10.1093/brain/114.4.1903pubmed: 1884185google scholar: lookup
  14. Burke D, Hicks R, Gandevia SC, Stephen J, Woodforth I, Crawford M. Direct comparison of corticospinal volleys in human subjects to transcranial magnetic and electrical stimulation.. J Physiol 1993 Oct;470:383-93.
    doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1993.sp019864pmc: PMC1143923pubmed: 8068071google scholar: lookup
  15. Burke D, Hicks RG, Stephen JP. Corticospinal volleys evoked by anodal and cathodal stimulation of the human motor cortex.. J Physiol 1990 Jun;425:283-99.
    doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1990.sp018103pmc: PMC1189848pubmed: 2213580google scholar: lookup
  16. Cohen D, Cuffin BN. Developing a more focal magnetic stimulator. Part I: Some basic principles.. J Clin Neurophysiol 1991 Jan;8(1):102-11.
    doi: 10.1097/00004691-199101000-00013pubmed: 2019645google scholar: lookup
  17. Cohen LG, Roth BJ, Nilsson J, Dang N, Panizza M, Bandinelli S, Friauf W, Hallett M. Effects of coil design on delivery of focal magnetic stimulation. Technical considerations.. Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol 1990 Apr;75(4):350-7.
    doi: 10.1016/0013-4694(90)90113-xpubmed: 1691084google scholar: lookup
  18. Colebatch JG, Dennis DL, Govender S, Chen P, Todd NP. Recruitment properties and significance of short latency reflexes in neck and eye muscles evoked by brief lateral head accelerations.. Exp Brain Res 2014 Sep;232(9):2977-88.
    doi: 10.1007/s00221-014-3980-3pmc: PMC4131169pubmed: 24838556google scholar: lookup
  19. Colebatch JG, Halmagyi GM, Skuse NF. Myogenic potentials generated by a click-evoked vestibulocollic reflex.. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1994 Feb;57(2):190-7.
    doi: 10.1136/jnnp.57.2.190pmc: PMC1072448pubmed: 8126503google scholar: lookup
  20. Datta A, Dmochowski JP, Guleyupoglu B, Bikson M, Fregni F. Cranial electrotherapy stimulation and transcranial pulsed current stimulation: a computer based high-resolution modeling study.. Neuroimage 2013 Jan 15;65:280-7.
    doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.09.062pubmed: 23041337google scholar: lookup
  21. Davis M, Gendelman DS, Tischler MD, Gendelman PM. A primary acoustic startle circuit: lesion and stimulation studies.. J Neurosci 1982 Jun;2(6):791-805.
    doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.02-06-00791.1982pmc: PMC6564345pubmed: 7086484google scholar: lookup
  22. Day BL, Thompson PD, Dick JP, Nakashima K, Marsden CD. Different sites of action of electrical and magnetic stimulation of the human brain.. Neurosci Lett 1987 Mar 20;75(1):101-6.
    doi: 10.1016/0304-3940(87)90083-8pubmed: 3574763google scholar: lookup
  23. de Noordhout AM, Rapisarda G, Bogacz D, Gérard P, De Pasqua V, Pennisi G, Delwaide PJ. Corticomotoneuronal synaptic connections in normal man: an electrophysiological study.. Brain 1999 Jul;122 ( Pt 7):1327-40.
    doi: 10.1093/brain/122.7.1327pubmed: 10388798google scholar: lookup
  24. Deletis V. Intraoperative monitoring of the functional integrity of the motor pathways.. Adv Neurol 1993;63:201-14.
    pubmed: 8279305
  25. Deng ZD, Lisanby SH, Peterchev AV. Electric field depth-focality tradeoff in transcranial magnetic stimulation: simulation comparison of 50 coil designs.. Brain Stimul 2013 Jan;6(1):1-13.
    doi: 10.1016/j.brs.2012.02.005pmc: PMC3568257pubmed: 22483681google scholar: lookup
  26. Di Lazzaro V, Oliviero A, Pilato F, Saturno E, Dileone M, Meglio M, Cioni B, Papacci F, Tonali PA, Rothwell JC. Comparison of descending volleys evoked by transcranial and epidural motor cortex stimulation in a conscious patient with bulbar pain.. Clin Neurophysiol 2004 Apr;115(4):834-8.
    doi: 10.1016/j.clinph.2003.11.026pubmed: 15003763google scholar: lookup
  27. Dreissen YE, Bakker MJ, Koelman JH, Tijssen MA. Exaggerated startle reactions.. Clin Neurophysiol 2012 Jan;123(1):34-44.
    doi: 10.1016/j.clinph.2011.09.022pubmed: 22033030google scholar: lookup
  28. DUENSING F. [Fright reflex and reaction caused by organic brain damage].. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr Z Gesamte Neurol Psychiatr 1952;188(2):162-92.
    doi: 10.1007/BF00352755pubmed: 14953350google scholar: lookup
  29. Edgley SA, Eyre JA, Lemon RN, Miller S. Excitation of the corticospinal tract by electromagnetic and electrical stimulation of the scalp in the macaque monkey.. J Physiol 1990 Jun;425:301-20.
    doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1990.sp018104pmc: PMC1189849pubmed: 2213581google scholar: lookup
  30. Edgley SA, Eyre JA, Lemon RN, Miller S. Comparison of activation of corticospinal neurons and spinal motor neurons by magnetic and electrical transcranial stimulation in the lumbosacral cord of the anaesthetized monkey.. Brain 1997 May;120 ( Pt 5):839-53.
    doi: 10.1093/brain/120.5.839pubmed: 9183254google scholar: lookup
  31. Fiocchi S, Chiaramello E, Luzi L, Ferrulli A, Bonato M, Roth Y. Deep transcranial magnetic stimulation for the addiction treatment: electric field distribution modeling. IEEE J. Electromagn. RF Microwaves Med. Biol. 2018;2:242–248.
    doi: 10.1109/JERM.2018.2874528google scholar: lookup
  32. Fisher KM, Zaaimi B, Baker SN. Reticular formation responses to magnetic brain stimulation of primary motor cortex.. J Physiol 2012 Aug 15;590(16):4045-60.
    doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2011.226209pmc: PMC3464356pubmed: 22674723google scholar: lookup
  33. Fitch RH, Threlkeld SW, McClure MM, Peiffer AM. Use of a modified prepulse inhibition paradigm to assess complex auditory discrimination in rodents.. Brain Res Bull 2008 May 15;76(1-2):1-7.
    doi: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2007.07.013pmc: PMC3888703pubmed: 18395604google scholar: lookup
  34. Gokin AP, Karpukhina MV. [Reticular structures of the cat brain participating in startle reflexes in response to somatic stimuli of different modalities].. Neirofiziologiia 1985;17(3):380-90.
    pubmed: 4022186
  35. Hahn CN, Mayhew IG, Washbourne JR. Measurement of the lateral thoracic reflex latency in ponies.. J Vet Intern Med 1998 Jul-Aug;12(4):310-2.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.1998.tb02127.xpubmed: 9686392google scholar: lookup
  36. Henry RW, Diesem CD. Proximal equine radial and median motor nerve conduction velocity.. Am J Vet Res 1981 Oct;42(10):1819-22.
    pubmed: 7325449
  37. Henry RW, Diesem CD, Wiechers DO. Evaluation of equine radial and median nerve conduction velocities.. Am J Vet Res 1979 Oct;40(10):1406-10.
    pubmed: 525862
  38. Hess CW, Ludin HP. [Transcranial cortex stimulation with magnetic field pulses: methodologic and physiologic principles].. EEG EMG Z Elektroenzephalogr Elektromyogr Verwandte Geb 1988 Dec;19(4):209-15.
    pubmed: 3145181
  39. Hess CW, Mills KR, Murray NM. Magnetic stimulation of the human brain: facilitation of motor responses by voluntary contraction of ipsilateral and contralateral muscles with additional observations on an amputee.. Neurosci Lett 1986 Nov 11;71(2):235-40.
    doi: 10.1016/0304-3940(86)90565-3pubmed: 3785745google scholar: lookup
  40. Hess CW, Mills KR, Murray NM. Responses in small hand muscles from magnetic stimulation of the human brain.. J Physiol 1987 Jul;388:397-419.
    doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1987.sp016621pmc: PMC1192555pubmed: 3079553google scholar: lookup
  41. Hoffman HS, Ison JR. Reflex modification in the domain of startle: I. Some empirical findings and their implications for how the nervous system processes sensory input.. Psychol Rev 1980 Mar;87(2):175-89.
    doi: 10.1037/0033-295x.87.2.175pubmed: 7375610google scholar: lookup
  42. Homan AE, Laghaei R, Dittrich M, Meriney SD. Impact of spatiotemporal calcium dynamics within presynaptic active zones on synaptic delay at the frog neuromuscular junction.. J Neurophysiol 2018 Feb 1;119(2):688-699.
    doi: 10.1152/jn.00510.2017pmc: PMC5867380pubmed: 29167324google scholar: lookup
  43. Hori A, Yasuhara A, Naito H, Yasuhara M. Blink reflex elicited by auditory stimulation in the rabbit.. J Neurol Sci 1986 Nov;76(1):49-59.
    doi: 10.1016/0022-510x(86)90141-3pubmed: 3783188google scholar: lookup
  44. Houlden DA, Schwartz ML, Tator CH, Ashby P, MacKay WA. Spinal cord-evoked potentials and muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation in 10 awake human subjects.. J Neurosci 1999 Mar 1;19(5):1855-62.
    doi: 10.1523/jneurosci.19-05-01855.1999pmc: PMC6782161pubmed: 10024369google scholar: lookup
  45. Huntington PJ, Jeffcott LB, Friend SC, Luff AR, Finkelstein DI, Flynn RJ. Australian Stringhalt--epidemiological, clinical and neurological investigations.. Equine Vet J 1989 Jul;21(4):266-73.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1989.tb02165.xpubmed: 2767028google scholar: lookup
  46. Hursh JB. Conduction velocity and diameter of nerve fibers. Am. J. Physiol. Content 1939;127:131–139.
    doi: 10.1152/ajplegacy.1939.127.1.131google scholar: lookup
  47. Ison JR, Sanes JN, Foss JA, Pinckney LA. Facilitation and inhibition of the human startle blink reflexes by stimulus anticipation.. Behav Neurosci 1990 Jun;104(3):418-29.
    doi: 10.1037/0735-7044.104.3.418pubmed: 2354037google scholar: lookup
  48. Journée HL, Berends HI, Kruyt MC. The Percentage of Amplitude Decrease Warning Criteria for Transcranial MEP Monitoring.. J Clin Neurophysiol 2017 Jan;34(1):22-31.
    doi: 10.1097/WNP.0000000000000338pubmed: 28045854google scholar: lookup
  49. Journée HL, Polak HE, De Kleuver M. Conditioning stimulation techniques for enhancement of transcranially elicited evoked motor responses.. Neurophysiol Clin 2007 Dec;37(6):423-30.
    doi: 10.1016/j.neucli.2007.10.002pubmed: 18083498google scholar: lookup
  50. Journée SL, Journée HL, de Bruijn CM, Delesalle CJG. Design and optimization of a novel method for assessment of the motor function of the spinal cord by multipulse transcranial electrical stimulation in horses. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2015;35:793–800.
    doi: 10.1016/J.JEVS.2015.07.014google scholar: lookup
  51. Journée SL, Journée HL, de Bruijn CM, Delesalle CJG. Multipulse transcranial electrical stimulation (TES): normative data for motor evoked potentials in healthy horses.. BMC Vet Res 2018 Apr 3;14(1):121.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-018-1447-7pmc: PMC5883272pubmed: 29615034google scholar: lookup
  52. Kaneko K, Kawai S, Fuchigami Y, Shiraishi G, Ito T. Effect of stimulus intensity and voluntary contraction on corticospinal potentials following transcranial magnetic stimulation.. J Neurol Sci 1996 Jul;139(1):131-6.
    doi: 10.1016/0022-510X(96)00050-0pubmed: 8836984google scholar: lookup
  53. Karpukhina MV, Gokin AP, Limanskiĭ IuP. [Features of activation of reticulospinal neurons of the pons and medulla oblongata of the cat by somatosensory stimuli of different modalities].. Neirofiziologiia 1986;18(4):461-9.
    doi: 10.1007/BF01052801pubmed: 3762790google scholar: lookup
  54. Kawai N, Nagao S. Origins and conducting pathways of motor evoked potentials elicited by transcranial magnetic stimulation in cats.. Neurosurgery 1992 Sep;31(3):520-6; discussion 526-7.
    pubmed: 1407432doi: 10.1227/00006123-199209000-00014google scholar: lookup
  55. King JL. The pyramid tract and other descending paths in the spinal cord of the sheep. Quart. J. expt. Physiol. 1911;4:133–149.
    doi: 10.1113/expphysiol.1911.sp000090google scholar: lookup
  56. Kuypers HGJ, Martin GF. Anatomy of Descending Pathways to the Spinal Cord. Progress in Brain Research 1982;329–631.
  57. Lemon RN, Griffiths J. Comparing the function of the corticospinal system in different species: organizational differences for motor specialization?. Muscle Nerve 2005 Sep;32(3):261-79.
    doi: 10.1002/mus.20333pubmed: 15806550google scholar: lookup
  58. Li DL, Journee HL, van Hulzen A, Rath WT, Sclabassi RJ, Sun M. Computer simulation of corticospinal activity during Transcranial Electrical Stimulation in neurosurgery.. Stud Health Technol Inform 2007;125:292-7.
    pubmed: 17377288
  59. Macdonald DB, Skinner S, Shils J, Yingling C. Intraoperative motor evoked potential monitoring - a position statement by the American Society of Neurophysiological Monitoring.. Clin Neurophysiol 2013 Dec;124(12):2291-316.
    doi: 10.1016/j.clinph.2013.07.025pubmed: 24055297google scholar: lookup
  60. Mayhew IG, Washbourne JR. Magnetic motor evoked potentials in ponies.. J Vet Intern Med 1996 Sep-Oct;10(5):326-9.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.1996.tb02071.xpubmed: 8884720google scholar: lookup
  61. Muir GD, Whishaw IQ. Complete locomotor recovery following corticospinal tract lesions: measurement of ground reaction forces during overground locomotion in rats.. Behav Brain Res 1999 Aug;103(1):45-53.
    doi: 10.1016/S0166-4328(99)00018-2pubmed: 10475163google scholar: lookup
  62. Nicoll RA, Madison DV. General anesthetics hyperpolarize neurons in the vertebrate central nervous system.. Science 1982 Sep 10;217(4564):1055-7.
    doi: 10.1126/science.7112112pubmed: 7112112google scholar: lookup
  63. Nielsen J, Petersen N, Ballegaard M. Latency of effects evoked by electrical and magnetic brain stimulation in lower limb motoneurones in man.. J Physiol 1995 May 1;484 ( Pt 3)(Pt 3):791-802.
    doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1995.sp020704pmc: PMC1157961pubmed: 7623293google scholar: lookup
  64. Nielsen JB, Perez MA, Oudega M, Enriquez-Denton M, Aimonetti JM. Evaluation of transcranial magnetic stimulation for investigating transmission in descending motor tracts in the rat.. Eur J Neurosci 2007 Feb;25(3):805-14.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05326.xpubmed: 17328776google scholar: lookup
  65. Nollet H, Deprez P, van Ham L, Dewulf J, Decleir A, Vanderstraeten G. Transcranial magnetic stimulation: normal values of magnetic motor evoked potentials in 84 normal horses and influence of height, weight, age and sex.. Equine Vet J 2004 Jan;36(1):51-7.
    doi: 10.2746/0425164044864660pubmed: 14756372google scholar: lookup
  66. Nollet H, Deprez P, Van Ham L, Verschooten F, Vanderstraeten G. The use of magnetic motor evoked potentials in horses with cervical spinal cord disease.. Equine Vet J 2002 Mar;34(2):156-63.
    doi: 10.2746/042516402776767204pubmed: 11902758google scholar: lookup
  67. Nollet H, Van Ham L, Deprez P, Vanderstraeten G. Transcranial magnetic stimulation: review of the technique, basic principles and applications.. Vet J 2003 Jul;166(1):28-42.
    doi: 10.1016/s1090-0233(03)00025-xpubmed: 12788015google scholar: lookup
  68. Nollet H, Van Ham L, Dewulf J, Vanderstraeten G, Deprez P. Standardization of transcranial magnetic stimulation in the horse.. Vet J 2003 Nov;166(3):244-50.
    doi: 10.1016/s1090-0233(03)00024-8pubmed: 14550735google scholar: lookup
  69. Nollet H, Van Ham L, Gasthuys F, Dewulf J, Vanderstraeten G, Deprez P. Influence of detomidine and buprenorphine on motor-evoked potentials in horses.. Vet Rec 2003 Apr 26;152(17):534-7.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.152.17.534pubmed: 12739602google scholar: lookup
  70. Nollet H, Van Ham L, Verschooten F, Vanderstraeten G, Deprez P. Use of magnetic motor-evoked potentials in horses with bilateral hind limb ataxia.. Am J Vet Res 2003 Nov;64(11):1382-6.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2003.64.1382pubmed: 14620774google scholar: lookup
  71. Nollet H, Vanschandevijl K, Van Ham L, Vanderstraeten G, Deprez P. Role of transcranial magnetic stimulation in differentiating motor nervous tract disorders from other causes of recumbency in four horses and one donkey.. Vet Rec 2005 Nov 19;157(21):656-8.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.157.21.656pubmed: 16299367google scholar: lookup
  72. Prosser CL, Hunter WS. The extinction of startle responses and spinal reflexes in the white rat. Am. J. Physiol. Content 1936;117:609–618.
    doi: 10.1152/ajplegacy.1936.117.4.609google scholar: lookup
  73. Reed TE. Residual latency (delay at the neuromuscular junction): normative values and heritability in mice.. Behav Genet 1984 May;14(3):209-19.
    doi: 10.1007/BF01065542pubmed: 6487229google scholar: lookup
  74. Rijckaert J, Pardon B, Van Ham L, van Loon G, Deprez P. Magnetic Motor Evoked Potential Recording in Horses Using Intramuscular Needle Electrodes and Surface Electrodes.. J Equine Vet Sci 2018 Sep;68:101-107.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.05.218pubmed: 31256880google scholar: lookup
  75. Rothwell J, Burke D, Hicks R, Stephen J, Woodforth I, Crawford M. Transcranial electrical stimulation of the motor cortex in man: further evidence for the site of activation.. J Physiol 1994 Nov 15;481 ( Pt 1)(Pt 1):243-50.
    doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1994.sp020435pmc: PMC1155882pubmed: 7853247google scholar: lookup
  76. Rothwell JC, Thompson PD, Day BL, Dick JP, Kachi T, Cowan JM, Marsden CD. Motor cortex stimulation in intact man. 1. General characteristics of EMG responses in different muscles.. Brain 1987 Oct;110 ( Pt 5):1173-90.
    doi: 10.1093/brain/110.5.1173pubmed: 3676697google scholar: lookup
  77. Sinclair CF, Téllez MJ, Tapia OR, Ulkatan S, Deletis V. A novel methodology for assessing laryngeal and vagus nerve integrity in patients under general anesthesia.. Clin Neurophysiol 2017 Jul;128(7):1399-1405.
    doi: 10.1016/j.clinph.2017.03.002pubmed: 28395952google scholar: lookup
  78. Sloan TB, Heyer EJ. Anesthesia for intraoperative neurophysiologic monitoring of the spinal cord.. J Clin Neurophysiol 2002 Oct;19(5):430-43.
    doi: 10.1097/00004691-200210000-00006pubmed: 12477988google scholar: lookup
  79. Sylvestre AM, Cockshutt JR, Parent JM, Brooke JD, Holmberg DL, Partlow GD. Magnetic motor evoked potentials for assessing spinal cord integrity in dogs with intervertebral disc disease.. Vet Surg 1993 Jan-Feb;22(1):5-10.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1532-950X.1993.tb00360.xpubmed: 8488675google scholar: lookup
  80. Lagerspetz A. THERMAL ACCLIMATION, NEUROMUSCULAR SYNAPTIC DELAY AND MINIATURE END-PLATE CURRENT DECAY IN THE FROG RANA TEMPORARIA.. J Exp Biol 1994 Feb;187(1):131-42.
    pubmed: 9317490doi: 10.1242/jeb.187.1.131google scholar: lookup
  81. Tomio R, Akiyama T, Ohira T, Yoshida K. Comparison of effectiveness between cork-screw and peg-screw electrodes for transcranial motor evoked potential monitoring using the finite element method.. Surg Neurol Int 2016;7(Suppl 32):S791-S796.
    doi: 10.4103/2152-7806.193929pmc: PMC5122820pubmed: 27920938google scholar: lookup
  82. Ubags LH, Kalkman CJ, Been HD, Koelman JH, Ongerboer de Visser BW. A comparison of myogenic motor evoked responses to electrical and magnetic transcranial stimulation during nitrous oxide/opioid anesthesia.. Anesth Analg 1999 Mar;88(3):568-72.
    doi: 10.1097/00000539-199903000-00019pubmed: 10072007google scholar: lookup
  83. Valls-Sole J. Assessment of excitability in brainstem circuits mediating the blink reflex and the startle reaction.. Clin Neurophysiol 2012 Jan;123(1):13-20.
    doi: 10.1016/j.clinph.2011.04.029pubmed: 22030138google scholar: lookup
  84. Veres-Nyéki KO, Leandri M, Spadavecchia C. Nociceptive trigeminal reflexes in non-sedated horses.. Vet J 2012 Jan;191(1):101-7.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.03.022pubmed: 21664846google scholar: lookup
  85. Verhaart WJ. Comparative anatomical aspects of the mammalian brain stem and the cord.. Stud Neuroanat 1970;2(9):1-312.
    pubmed: 5527414
  86. Watson SR, Colebatch JG. Vestibulocollic reflexes evoked by short-duration galvanic stimulation in man.. J Physiol 1998 Dec 1;513 ( Pt 2)(Pt 2):587-97.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.1998.587bb.xpmc: PMC2231297pubmed: 9807006google scholar: lookup
  87. Wheeler SJ. Effect of age on sensory nerve conduction velocity in the horse.. Res Vet Sci 1990 Mar;48(2):141-4.
    doi: 10.1016/s0034-5288(18)30979-2pubmed: 2333419google scholar: lookup
  88. Wheeler SJ. Quantitative and qualitative morphology of equine peripheral nerve: teased fibre studies.. Res Vet Sci 1990 Mar;48(2):145-51.
    doi: 10.1016/s0034-5288(18)30980-9pubmed: 2333420google scholar: lookup
  89. Wheeler SJ, Plummer JM. Age-related changes in the fibre composition of equine peripheral nerve.. J Neurol Sci 1989 Mar;90(1):53-66.
    doi: 10.1016/0022-510X(89)90045-2pubmed: 2723674google scholar: lookup
  90. Wilkins DE, Hallett M, Wess MM. Audiogenic startle reflex of man and its relationship to startle syndromes. A review.. Brain 1986 Jun;109 ( Pt 3):561-73.
    doi: 10.1093/brain/109.3.561pubmed: 3719291google scholar: lookup
  91. Zarucco L, Driessen B, Scandella M, Cozzi F, Cantile C. Sensory nerve conduction and nociception in the equine lower forelimb during perineural bupivacaine infusion along the palmar nerves.. Can J Vet Res 2010 Oct;74(4):305-13.
    pmc: PMC2949344pubmed: 21197231
  92. Zentner J, Albrecht T, Heuser D. Influence of halothane, enflurane, and isoflurane on motor evoked potentials.. Neurosurgery 1992 Aug;31(2):298-305.
    doi: 10.1227/00006123-199208000-00015pubmed: 1513434google scholar: lookup
  93. Zentner J, Thees C, Pechstein U, Scheufler KM, Würker J, Nadstawek J. Influence of nitrous oxide on motor-evoked potentials.. Spine (Phila Pa 1976) 1997 May 1;22(9):1002-6.
    doi: 10.1097/00007632-199705010-00012pubmed: 9152450google scholar: lookup
  94. Zhou HH, Jin TT, Qin B, Turndorf H. Suppression of spinal cord motoneuron excitability correlates with surgical immobility during isoflurane anesthesia.. Anesthesiology 1998 Apr;88(4):955-61.
    doi: 10.1097/00000542-199804000-00015pubmed: 9579504google scholar: lookup
  95. Ziemann U. Thirty years of transcranial magnetic stimulation: where do we stand?. Exp Brain Res 2017 Apr;235(4):973-984.
    doi: 10.1007/s00221-016-4865-4pubmed: 28120010google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 1 times.
  1. Journée SL, Journée HL, Berends HI, Reed SM, Bergmann W, de Bruijn CM, Delesalle CJG. Trapezius Motor Evoked Potentials From Transcranial Electrical Stimulation and Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: Reference Data, Characteristic Differences and Intradural Motor Velocities in Horses.. Front Neurosci 2022;16:851463.
    doi: 10.3389/fnins.2022.851463pubmed: 35573305google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,359 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.