FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Viruses / Comparison of West Nile Virus Disease in Humans and Horses: ...
Viruses2023; 15(6); 1230; doi: 10.3390/v15061230

Comparison of West Nile Virus Disease in Humans and Horses: Exploiting Similarities for Enhancing Syndromic Surveillance.

Abstract: West Nile virus (WNV) neuroinvasive disease threatens the health and well-being of horses and humans worldwide. Disease in horses and humans is remarkably similar. The occurrence of WNV disease in these mammalian hosts has geographic overlap with shared macroscale and microscale drivers of risk. Importantly, intrahost virus dynamics, the evolution of the antibody response, and clinicopathology are similar. The goal of this review is to provide a comparison of WNV infection in humans and horses and to identify similarities that can be exploited to enhance surveillance methods for the early detection of WNV neuroinvasive disease.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2023-05-24 PubMed ID: 37376530PubMed Central: PMC10303507DOI: 10.3390/v15061230Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The researchers in this article are comparing the West Nile Virus (WNV) disease as it manifests in humans and horses, with the aim to improve earlier detection of the disease through enhanced surveillance methods.

Similarities in Disease Manifestation

  • The study looks at the occurrence of West Nile virus in horses and humans, two host species that demonstrate remarkable similarity in the presentation of the disease. The researchers note that both species also share geographic regions that are prone to WNV outbreaks, with common risk factors on both macro and micro levels.

Intrahost Virus Dynamics and Antibody Response

  • The article examines the intrahost virus dynamics, which refers to how the virus behaves and multiplies within a single host. The researchers also look into the evolution of the antibody response in both species. The antibody response is how the body’s immune system responds to the virus.

Clinicopathology of WNV

  • The clinicopathology of the West Nile virus is also analyzed by the researchers. Clinicopathology involves studying the clinical aspects of a disease (symptoms, patient history, physical examinations, etc.) and relating these to the changes in body tissues and organs at the macroscopic or microscopic level.

Surveillance Enhancement

  • The researchers propose to leverage the similarities between horses and humans in the manifestation and progression of WNV for surveillance enhancement. They believe that understanding these similar patterns will give insight into how to better detect the virus at earlier stages in both species.

In essence, this study aims to promote an integrated approach to human and horse health when it comes to dealing with the threat of West Nile virus, by exploiting their shared disease patterns for improved surveillance and early detection.

Cite This Article

APA
Schwarz ER, Long MT. (2023). Comparison of West Nile Virus Disease in Humans and Horses: Exploiting Similarities for Enhancing Syndromic Surveillance. Viruses, 15(6), 1230. https://doi.org/10.3390/v15061230

Publication

Viruses
ISSN: 1999-4915
NlmUniqueID: 101509722
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 15
Issue: 6
PII: 1230

Researcher Affiliations

Schwarz, Erika R
  • Montana Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, MT Department of Livestock, Bozeman, MT 59718, USA.
Long, Maureen T
  • Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, & Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.

MeSH Terms

  • Humans
  • Horses
  • Animals
  • West Nile virus / physiology
  • West Nile Fever / epidemiology
  • West Nile Fever / veterinary
  • Sentinel Surveillance
  • Mammals
  • Horse Diseases / diagnosis
  • Horse Diseases / epidemiology

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 228 references
  1. HURLBUT HS, RIZK F, TAYLOR RM, WORK TH. A study of the ecology of West Nile virus in Egypt.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1956 Jul;5(4):579-620.
    pubmed: 13354882doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1956.5.579google scholar: lookup
  2. Jupp PG, McIntosh BM. Quantitative experiments on the vector capability of Culex (Culex) univittatus Theobald with West Nile and Sindbis viruses.. J Med Entomol 1970 May 30;7(3):371-3.
    doi: 10.1093/jmedent/7.3.371pubmed: 5451049google scholar: lookup
  3. Hoffmann L, Mouchet J, Rageau J, Hannoun C, Joubert L, Oudar J, Beytout D. [Epidemiology of the West Nile virus: study of an outbreak in Camargue. II. Outline of the physical, biological and human environment].. Ann Inst Pasteur (Paris) 1968 Apr;114(4):521-38.
    pubmed: 4386310
  4. Jupp PG, Blackburn NK, Thompson DL, Meenehan GM. Sindbis and West Nile virus infections in the Witwatersrand-Pretoria region.. S Afr Med J 1986 Aug 16;70(4):218-20.
    pubmed: 3016922
  5. Lanciotti RS, Roehrig JT, Deubel V, Smith J, Parker M, Steele K, Crise B, Volpe KE, Crabtree MB, Scherret JH, Hall RA, MacKenzie JS, Cropp CB, Panigrahy B, Ostlund E, Schmitt B, Malkinson M, Banet C, Weissman J, Komar N, Savage HM, Stone W, McNamara T, Gubler DJ. Origin of the West Nile virus responsible for an outbreak of encephalitis in the northeastern United States.. Science 1999 Dec 17;286(5448):2333-7.
    doi: 10.1126/science.286.5448.2333pubmed: 10600742google scholar: lookup
  6. Byas AD, Ebel GD. Comparative Pathology of West Nile Virus in Humans and Non-Human Animals.. Pathogens 2020 Jan 7;9(1).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens9010048pmc: PMC7168622pubmed: 31935992google scholar: lookup
  7. Castillo-Olivares J, Wood J. West Nile virus infection of horses.. Vet Res 2004 Jul-Aug;35(4):467-83.
    doi: 10.1051/vetres:2004022pubmed: 15236677google scholar: lookup
  8. Rockx B, van Asten L, van den Wijngaard C, Godeke GJ, Goehring L, Vennema H, van der Avoort H, van Pelt W, Koopmans M. Syndromic surveillance in the Netherlands for the early detection of West Nile virus epidemics.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2006 Summer;6(2):161-9.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2006.6.161pubmed: 16796513google scholar: lookup
  9. Leblond A, Hendrikx P, Sabatier P. West Nile virus outbreak detection using syndromic monitoring in horses.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2007 Fall;7(3):403-10.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2006.0593pubmed: 17767410google scholar: lookup
  10. Porter RS, Leblond A, Lecollinet S, Tritz P, Cantile C, Kutasi O, Zientara S, Pradier S, van Galen G, Speybroek N, Saegerman C. Clinical diagnosis of West Nile Fever in Equids by classification and regression tree (CART) analysis and comparative study of clinical appearance in three European countries.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2011 Jun;58(3):197-205.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2010.01196.xpubmed: 21208395google scholar: lookup
  11. Faverjon C, Andersson MG, Decors A, Tapprest J, Tritz P, Sandoz A, Kutasi O, Sala C, Leblond A. Evaluation of a Multivariate Syndromic Surveillance System for West Nile Virus.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2016 Jun;16(6):382-90.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2015.1883pmc: PMC4884334pubmed: 27159212google scholar: lookup
  12. Faverjon C, Vial F, Andersson MG, Lecollinet S, Leblond A. Early detection of West Nile virus in France: quantitative assessment of syndromic surveillance system using nervous signs in horses.. Epidemiol Infect 2017 Apr;145(5):1044-1057.
    doi: 10.1017/S0950268816002946pmc: PMC9507807pubmed: 27938434google scholar: lookup
  13. Hedell R, Andersson MG, Faverjon C, Marcillaud-Pitel C, Leblond A, Mostad P. Surveillance of animal diseases through implementation of a Bayesian spatio-temporal model: A simulation example with neurological syndromes in horses and West Nile Virus.. Prev Vet Med 2019 Jan 1;162:95-106.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2018.11.010pubmed: 30621904google scholar: lookup
  14. Smithburn KC, Hughes TP, Burke AW, Paul JH. A neurotropic virus isolated from the blood of a native of Uganda.. Am. J. Trop. Med. 1940;20:471–472.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.1940.s1-20.471google scholar: lookup
  15. Chambers TJ, Hahn CS, Galler R, Rice CM. Flavivirus genome organization, expression, and replication.. Annu Rev Microbiol 1990;44:649-88.
    doi: 10.1146/annurev.mi.44.100190.003245pubmed: 2174669google scholar: lookup
  16. Brinton MA. The molecular biology of West Nile Virus: a new invader of the western hemisphere.. Annu Rev Microbiol 2002;56:371-402.
    doi: 10.1146/annurev.micro.56.012302.160654pubmed: 12142476google scholar: lookup
  17. Mukhopadhyay S, Kim BS, Chipman PR, Rossmann MG, Kuhn RJ. Structure of West Nile virus.. Science 2003 Oct 10;302(5643):248.
    doi: 10.1126/science.1089316pubmed: 14551429google scholar: lookup
  18. Khromykh AA, Westaway EG. Completion of Kunjin virus RNA sequence and recovery of an infectious RNA transcribed from stably cloned full-length cDNA.. J Virol 1994 Jul;68(7):4580-8.
    doi: 10.1128/jvi.68.7.4580-4588.1994pmc: PMC236385pubmed: 8207832google scholar: lookup
  19. Lanciotti RS, Ebel GD, Deubel V, Kerst AJ, Murri S, Meyer R, Bowen M, McKinney N, Morrill WE, Crabtree MB, Kramer LD, Roehrig JT. Complete genome sequences and phylogenetic analysis of West Nile virus strains isolated from the United States, Europe, and the Middle East.. Virology 2002 Jun 20;298(1):96-105.
    doi: 10.1006/viro.2002.1449pubmed: 12093177google scholar: lookup
  20. Hubálek Z, Halouzka J. West Nile fever--a reemerging mosquito-borne viral disease in Europe.. Emerg Infect Dis 1999 Sep-Oct;5(5):643-50.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0505.990505pmc: PMC2627720pubmed: 10511520google scholar: lookup
  21. Murgue B, Murri S, Triki H, Deubel V, Zeller HG. West Nile in the Mediterranean basin: 1950-2000.. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001 Dec;951:117-26.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02690.xpubmed: 11797769google scholar: lookup
  22. Murgue B, Murri S, Zientara S, Durand B, Durand JP, Zeller H. West Nile outbreak in horses in southern France, 2000: the return after 35 years.. Emerg Infect Dis 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):692-6.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0704.017417pmc: PMC2631744pubmed: 11585534google scholar: lookup
  23. Murgue B, Zeller H, Deubel V. The ecology and epidemiology of West Nile virus in Africa, Europe and Asia.. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2002;267:195-221.
    pubmed: 12082990doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-59403-8_10google scholar: lookup
  24. Trock SC, Meade BJ, Glaser AL, Ostlund EN, Lanciotti RS, Cropp BC, Kulasekera V, Kramer LD, Komar N. West Nile virus outbreak among horses in New York State, 1999 and 2000.. Emerg Infect Dis 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):745-7.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0704.017427pmc: PMC2631776pubmed: 11585543google scholar: lookup
  25. Frost MJ, Zhang J, Edmonds JH, Prow NA, Gu X, Davis R, Hornitzky C, Arzey KE, Finlaison D, Hick P, Read A, Hobson-Peters J, May FJ, Doggett SL, Haniotis J, Russell RC, Hall RA, Khromykh AA, Kirkland PD. Characterization of virulent West Nile virus Kunjin strain, Australia, 2011.. Emerg Infect Dis 2012 May;18(5):792-800.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1805.111720pmc: PMC3358055pubmed: 22516173google scholar: lookup
  26. Mann RA, Fegan M, O'Riley K, Motha J, Warner S. Molecular characterization and phylogenetic analysis of Murray Valley encephalitis virus and West Nile virus (Kunjin subtype) from an arbovirus disease outbreak in horses in Victoria, Australia, in 2011.. J Vet Diagn Invest 2013 Jan;25(1):35-44.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638712467985pubmed: 23345269google scholar: lookup
  27. Barzon L, Franchin E, Squarzon L, Lavezzo E, Toppo S, Martello T, Bressan S, Pagni S, Cattai M, Piazza A, Pacenti M, Cusinato R, Palù G. Genome sequence analysis of the first human West Nile virus isolated in Italy in 2009.. Euro Surveill 2009 Nov 5;14(44).
    doi: 10.2807/ese.14.44.19384-enpubmed: 19941775google scholar: lookup
  28. Barzon L, Pacenti M, Franchin E, Lavezzo E, Martello T, Squarzon L, Toppo S, Fiorin F, Marchiori G, Russo F, Cattai M, Cusinato R, Palu G. New endemic West Nile virus lineage 1a in northern Italy, July 2012.. Euro Surveill 2012 Aug 2;17(31).
    doi: 10.2807/ese.17.31.20231-enpubmed: 22874456google scholar: lookup
  29. Barzon L, Papa A, Pacenti M, Franchin E, Lavezzo E, Squarzon L, Masi G, Martello T, Testa T, Cusinato R, Palù G. Genome sequencing of West Nile Virus from human cases in Greece, 2012.. Viruses 2013 Sep 24;5(9):2311-9.
    doi: 10.3390/v5092311pmc: PMC3798904pubmed: 24064795google scholar: lookup
  30. Zehender G, Veo C, Ebranati E, Carta V, Rovida F, Percivalle E, Moreno A, Lelli D, Calzolari M, Lavazza A, Chiapponi C, Baioni L, Capelli G, Ravagnan S, Da Rold G, Lavezzo E, Palù G, Baldanti F, Barzon L, Galli M. Reconstructing the recent West Nile virus lineage 2 epidemic in Europe and Italy using discrete and continuous phylogeography.. PLoS One 2017;12(7):e0179679.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0179679pmc: PMC5497961pubmed: 28678837google scholar: lookup
  31. Barzon L, Pacenti M, Franchin E, Lavezzo E, Masi G, Squarzon L, Pagni S, Toppo S, Russo F, Cattai M, Cusinato R, Palu G. Whole genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of West Nile virus lineage 1 and lineage 2 from human cases of infection, Italy, August 2013.. Euro Surveill 2013 Sep 19;18(38).
    doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES2013.18.38.20591pubmed: 24084339google scholar: lookup
  32. Barzon L, Papa A, Lavezzo E, Franchin E, Pacenti M, Sinigaglia A, Masi G, Trevisan M, Squarzon L, Toppo S, Papadopoulou E, Nowotny N, Ulbert S, Piralla A, Rovida F, Baldanti F, Percivalle E, Palù G. Phylogenetic characterization of Central/Southern European lineage 2 West Nile virus: analysis of human outbreaks in Italy and Greece, 2013-2014.. Clin Microbiol Infect 2015 Dec;21(12):1122.e1-10.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2015.07.018pubmed: 26235197google scholar: lookup
  33. Barzon L. Ongoing and emerging arbovirus threats in Europe.. J Clin Virol 2018 Oct;107:38-47.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jcv.2018.08.007pubmed: 30176404google scholar: lookup
  34. Donadieu E, Bahuon C, Lowenski S, Zientara S, Coulpier M, Lecollinet S. Differential virulence and pathogenesis of West Nile viruses.. Viruses 2013 Nov 22;5(11):2856-80.
    doi: 10.3390/v5112856pmc: PMC3856419pubmed: 24284878google scholar: lookup
  35. Ciota AT, Kramer LD. Vector-virus interactions and transmission dynamics of West Nile virus.. Viruses 2013 Dec 9;5(12):3021-47.
    doi: 10.3390/v5123021pmc: PMC3967159pubmed: 24351794google scholar: lookup
  36. Tolsá-García MJ, Wehmeyer ML, Lühken R, Roiz D. Worldwide transmission and infection risk of mosquito vectors of West Nile, St. Louis encephalitis, Usutu and Japanese encephalitis viruses: a systematic review.. Sci Rep 2023 Jan 6;13(1):308.
    doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-27236-1pmc: PMC9822987pubmed: 36609450google scholar: lookup
  37. May FJ, Davis CT, Tesh RB, Barrett AD. Phylogeography of West Nile virus: from the cradle of evolution in Africa to Eurasia, Australia, and the Americas.. J Virol 2011 Mar;85(6):2964-74.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.01963-10pmc: PMC3067944pubmed: 21159871google scholar: lookup
  38. Uelmen JA, Irwin P, Bartlett D, Brown W, Karki S, Ruiz MO, Fraterrigo J, Li B, Smith RL. Effects of Scale on Modeling West Nile Virus Disease Risk.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2021 Jan;104(1):151-165.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0416pmc: PMC7790096pubmed: 33146116google scholar: lookup
  39. Lambin EF, Tran A, Vanwambeke SO, Linard C, Soti V. Pathogenic landscapes: interactions between land, people, disease vectors, and their animal hosts.. Int J Health Geogr 2010 Oct 27;9:54.
    doi: 10.1186/1476-072X-9-54pmc: PMC2984574pubmed: 20979609google scholar: lookup
  40. Yiannakoulias NW, Schopflocher DP, Svenson LW. Modelling geographic variations in West Nile virus.. Can J Public Health 2006 Sep-Oct;97(5):374-8.
    doi: 10.1007/BF03405345pmc: PMC6975644pubmed: 17120875google scholar: lookup
  41. Allan BF, Langerhans RB, Ryberg WA, Landesman WJ, Griffin NW, Katz RS, Oberle BJ, Schutzenhofer MR, Smyth KN, de St Maurice A, Clark L, Crooks KR, Hernandez DE, McLean RG, Ostfeld RS, Chase JM. Ecological correlates of risk and incidence of West Nile virus in the United States.. Oecologia 2009 Jan;158(4):699-708.
    doi: 10.1007/s00442-008-1169-9pubmed: 18941794google scholar: lookup
  42. Sugumaran R, Larson SR, Degroote JP. Spatio-temporal cluster analysis of county-based human West Nile virus incidence in the continental United States.. Int J Health Geogr 2009 Jul 13;8:43.
    doi: 10.1186/1476-072X-8-43pmc: PMC2717929pubmed: 19594928google scholar: lookup
  43. Conte A, Candeloro L, Ippoliti C, Monaco F, De Massis F, Bruno R, Di Sabatino D, Danzetta ML, Benjelloun A, Belkadi B, El Harrak M, Declich S, Rizzo C, Hammami S, Ben Hassine T, Calistri P, Savini G. Spatio-Temporal Identification of Areas Suitable for West Nile Disease in the Mediterranean Basin and Central Europe.. PLoS One 2015;10(12):e0146024.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0146024pmc: PMC4696814pubmed: 26717483google scholar: lookup
  44. Tran A, L'Ambert G, Balança G, Pradier S, Grosbois V, Balenghien T, Baldet T, Lecollinet S, Leblond A, Gaidet-Drapier N. An Integrative Eco-Epidemiological Analysis of West Nile Virus Transmission.. Ecohealth 2017 Sep;14(3):474-489.
    doi: 10.1007/s10393-017-1249-6pmc: PMC5662683pubmed: 28584951google scholar: lookup
  45. Giordano BV, Turner KW, Hunter FF. Geospatial Analysis and Seasonal Distribution of West Nile Virus Vectors (Diptera: Culicidae) in Southern Ontario, Canada.. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2018 Mar 28;15(4).
    doi: 10.3390/ijerph15040614pmc: PMC5923656pubmed: 29597256google scholar: lookup
  46. Hess A, Davis JK, Wimberly MC. Identifying Environmental Risk Factors and Mapping the Distribution of West Nile Virus in an Endemic Region of North America.. Geohealth 2018 Dec;2(12):395-409.
    doi: 10.1029/2018GH000161pmc: PMC7007078pubmed: 32159009google scholar: lookup
  47. Moon SA, Cohnstaedt LW, McVey DS, Scoglio CM. A spatio-temporal individual-based network framework for West Nile virus in the USA: Spreading pattern of West Nile virus.. PLoS Comput Biol 2019 Mar;15(3):e1006875.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006875pmc: PMC6433293pubmed: 30865618google scholar: lookup
  48. Karki S, Brown WM, Uelmen J, Ruiz MO, Smith RL. The drivers of West Nile virus human illness in the Chicago, Illinois, USA area: Fine scale dynamic effects of weather, mosquito infection, social, and biological conditions.. PLoS One 2020;15(5):e0227160.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227160pmc: PMC7241786pubmed: 32437363google scholar: lookup
  49. Moirano G, Richiardi L, Calzolari M, Merletti F, Maule M. Recent rapid changes in the spatio-temporal distribution of West Nile Neuro-invasive Disease in Italy.. Zoonoses Public Health 2020 Feb;67(1):54-61.
    doi: 10.1111/zph.12654pubmed: 31612606google scholar: lookup
  50. García-Carrasco JM, Muñoz AR, Olivero J, Segura M, Real R. Predicting the spatio-temporal spread of West Nile virus in Europe.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021 Jan;15(1):e0009022.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009022pmc: PMC7790247pubmed: 33411739google scholar: lookup
  51. Uelmen JA, Irwin P, Brown WM, Karki S, Ruiz MO, Li B, Smith RL. Dynamics of data availability in disease modeling: An example evaluating the trade-offs of ultra-fine-scale factors applied to human West Nile virus disease models in the Chicago area, USA.. PLoS One 2021;16(5):e0251517.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0251517pmc: PMC8133451pubmed: 34010306google scholar: lookup
  52. Calistri P, Giovannini A, Hubalek Z, Ionescu A, Monaco F, Savini G, Lelli R. Epidemiology of west nile in europe and in the mediterranean basin.. Open Virol J 2010 Apr 22;4:29-37.
    doi: 10.2174/1874357901004010029pmc: PMC2878979pubmed: 20517490google scholar: lookup
  53. Alba A, Allepuz A, Napp S, Soler M, Selga I, Aranda C, Casal J, Pages N, Hayes EB, Busquets N. Ecological surveillance for West Nile in Catalonia (Spain), learning from a five-year period of follow-up.. Zoonoses Public Health 2014 May;61(3):181-91.
    doi: 10.1111/zph.12048pubmed: 23590452google scholar: lookup
  54. Kolodziejek J, Jungbauer C, Aberle SW, Allerberger F, Bagó Z, Camp JV, Dimmel K, de Heus P, Kolodziejek M, Schiefer P, Seidel B, Stiasny K, Nowotny N. Integrated analysis of human-animal-vector surveillance: West Nile virus infections in Austria, 2015-2016.. Emerg Microbes Infect 2018 Mar 14;7(1):25.
    doi: 10.1038/s41426-018-0021-5pmc: PMC5849732pubmed: 29535293google scholar: lookup
  55. Ganzenberg S, Sieg M, Ziegler U, Pfeffer M, Vahlenkamp TW, Hörügel U, Groschup MH, Lohmann KL. Seroprevalence and Risk Factors for Equine West Nile Virus Infections in Eastern Germany, 2020.. Viruses 2022 May 30;14(6).
    doi: 10.3390/v14061191pmc: PMC9229339pubmed: 35746662google scholar: lookup
  56. Lustig Y, Kaufman Z, Mannasse B, Koren R, Katz-Likvornik S, Orshan L, Glatman-Freedman A, Mendelson E. West Nile virus outbreak in Israel in 2015: phylogenetic and geographic characterization in humans and mosquitoes.. Clin Microbiol Infect 2017 Dec;23(12):986-993.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cmi.2017.04.023pubmed: 28487165google scholar: lookup
  57. Srihi H, Chatti N, Ben Mhadheb M, Gharbi J, Abid N. Phylodynamic and phylogeographic analysis of the complete genome of the West Nile virus lineage 2 (WNV-2) in the Mediterranean basin.. BMC Ecol Evol 2021 Sep 27;21(1):183.
    doi: 10.1186/s12862-021-01902-wpmc: PMC8477494pubmed: 34579648google scholar: lookup
  58. García-Carrasco JM, Muñoz AR, Olivero J, Segura M, Real R. Mapping the Risk for West Nile Virus Transmission, Africa.. Emerg Infect Dis 2022 Apr;28(4):777-785.
    doi: 10.3201/eid2804.211103pmc: PMC8962882pubmed: 35318911google scholar: lookup
  59. Swaddle JP, Calos SE. Increased avian diversity is associated with lower incidence of human West Nile infection: observation of the dilution effect.. PLoS One 2008 Jun 25;3(6):e2488.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002488pmc: PMC2427181pubmed: 18575599google scholar: lookup
  60. Borchardt SM, Feist MA, Miller T, Lo TS. Epidemiology of West Nile virus in the highly epidemic state of North Dakota, 2002-2007.. Public Health Rep 2010 Mar-Apr;125(2):246-9.
    doi: 10.1177/003335491012500213pmc: PMC2821852pubmed: 20297751google scholar: lookup
  61. Bowden SE, Magori K, Drake JM. Regional differences in the association between land cover and West Nile virus disease incidence in humans in the United States.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2011 Feb;84(2):234-8.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2011.10-0134pmc: PMC3029173pubmed: 21292890google scholar: lookup
  62. Andreadis TG. The contribution of Culex pipiens complex mosquitoes to transmission and persistence of West Nile virus in North America.. J Am Mosq Control Assoc 2012 Dec;28(4 Suppl):137-51.
    doi: 10.2987/8756-971X-28.4s.137pubmed: 23401954google scholar: lookup
  63. Kilpatrick AM, Pape WJ. Predicting human West Nile virus infections with mosquito surveillance data.. Am J Epidemiol 2013 Sep 1;178(5):829-35.
    doi: 10.1093/aje/kwt046pmc: PMC3755645pubmed: 23825164google scholar: lookup
  64. Humphreys JM, Young KI, Cohnstaedt LW, Hanley KA, Peters DPC. Vector Surveillance, Host Species Richness, and Demographic Factors as West Nile Disease Risk Indicators.. Viruses 2021 May 18;13(5).
    doi: 10.3390/v13050934pmc: PMC8267946pubmed: 34070039google scholar: lookup
  65. Di Giallonardo F, Geoghegan JL, Docherty DE, McLean RG, Zody MC, Qu J, Yang X, Birren BW, Malboeuf CM, Newman RM, Ip HS, Holmes EC. Fluid Spatial Dynamics of West Nile Virus in the United States: Rapid Spread in a Permissive Host Environment.. J Virol 2016 Jan 15;90(2):862-72.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.02305-15pmc: PMC4702690pubmed: 26512086google scholar: lookup
  66. Lorenz C, de Azevedo TS, Chiaravalloti-Neto F. Impact of climate change on West Nile virus distribution in South America.. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2022 Nov 1;116(11):1043-1053.
    doi: 10.1093/trstmh/trac044pubmed: 35640005google scholar: lookup
  67. Pauvolid-Corrêa A, Campos Z, Juliano R, Velez J, Nogueira RM, Komar N. Serological evidence of widespread circulation of West Nile virus and other flaviviruses in equines of the Pantanal, Brazil.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014 Feb;8(2):e2706.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002706pmc: PMC3923745pubmed: 24551266google scholar: lookup
  68. Gates MC, Boston RC. Irrigation linked to a greater incidence of human and veterinary West Nile virus cases in the United States from 2004 to 2006.. Prev Vet Med 2009 May 1;89(1-2):134-7.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2008.12.004pubmed: 19185941google scholar: lookup
  69. Ward MP, Wittich CA, Fosgate G, Srinivasan R. Environmental risk factors for equine West Nile virus disease cases in Texas.. Vet Res Commun 2009 Jun;33(5):461-71.
    doi: 10.1007/s11259-008-9192-1pubmed: 19031106google scholar: lookup
  70. Bisanzio D, Martello E, Izenour K, Stevens K, Kaur R, McKenzie BA, Kraemer M, Reithinger R, Zohdy S. Arboviral diseases and poverty in Alabama, 2007-2017.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021 Jul;15(7):e0009535.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009535pmc: PMC8284636pubmed: 34228748google scholar: lookup
  71. Schellenberg TL, Anderson ME, Drebot MA, Vooght MT, Findlater AR, Curry PS, Campbell CA, Osei WD. Seroprevalence of West Nile virus in Saskatchewan's Five Hills Health Region, 2003.. Can J Public Health 2006 Sep-Oct;97(5):369-73.
    doi: 10.1007/BF03405344pmc: PMC6975729pubmed: 17120874google scholar: lookup
  72. Eisen L, Barker CM, Moore CG, Pape WJ, Winters AM, Cheronis N. Irrigated agriculture is an important risk factor for West Nile virus disease in the hyperendemic Larimer-Boulder-Weld area of north central Colorado.. J Med Entomol 2010 Sep;47(5):939-51.
    doi: 10.1093/jmedent/47.5.939pubmed: 20939393google scholar: lookup
  73. Crowder DW, Dykstra EA, Brauner JM, Duffy A, Reed C, Martin E, Peterson W, Carrière Y, Dutilleul P, Owen JP. West nile virus prevalence across landscapes is mediated by local effects of agriculture on vector and host communities.. PLoS One 2013;8(1):e55006.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055006pmc: PMC3559328pubmed: 23383032google scholar: lookup
  74. Rios LM, Sheu JJ, Day JF, Maruniak JE, Seino K, Zaretsky H, Long MT. Environmental risk factors associated with West Nile virus clinical disease in Florida horses.. Med Vet Entomol 2009 Dec;23(4):357-66.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2915.2009.00821.xpubmed: 19941601google scholar: lookup
  75. Sardelis MR, Turell MJ, Dohm DJ, O'Guinn ML. Vector competence of selected North American Culex and Coquillettidia mosquitoes for West Nile virus.. Emerg Infect Dis 2001 Nov-Dec;7(6):1018-22.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0706.010617pmc: PMC2631924pubmed: 11747732google scholar: lookup
  76. Turell MJ, O'Guinn ML, Dohm DJ, Webb JP Jr, Sardelis MR. Vector competence of Culex tarsalis from Orange County, California, for West Nile virus.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2002 Fall;2(3):193-6.
    doi: 10.1089/15303660260613756pubmed: 12737548google scholar: lookup
  77. Turell MJ, Dohm DJ, Sardelis MR, Oguinn ML, Andreadis TG, Blow JA. An update on the potential of north American mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) to transmit West Nile Virus.. J Med Entomol 2005 Jan;42(1):57-62.
    doi: 10.1093/jmedent/42.1.57pubmed: 15691009google scholar: lookup
  78. Kampen H, Walther D. Vector Potential of Mosquito Species (Diptera: Culicidae) Occurring in Central Europe.. In: Benelli G., Mehlhorn H., editors. Mosquito-Borne Diseases: Implications for Public Health. Springer International Publishing; Cham, Switzerland: 2018. pp. 41–68.
    doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-94075-5_5google scholar: lookup
  79. Rochlin I, Faraji A, Healy K, Andreadis TG. West Nile Virus Mosquito Vectors in North America.. J Med Entomol 2019 Oct 28;56(6):1475-1490.
    doi: 10.1093/jme/tjz146pubmed: 31549725google scholar: lookup
  80. Blackmore CG, Stark LM, Jeter WC, Oliveri RL, Brooks RG, Conti LA, Wiersma ST. Surveillance results from the first West Nile virus transmission season in Florida, 2001.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2003 Aug;69(2):141-50.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2003.69.141pubmed: 13677369google scholar: lookup
  81. Hribar LJ, Vlach JJ, Demay DJ, Stark LM, Stoner RL, Godsey MS, Burkhalter KL, Spoto MC, James SS, Smith JM, Fussell EM. Mosquitoes infected with West Nile virus in the Florida Keys, Monroe County, Florida, USA.. J Med Entomol 2003 May;40(3):361-3.
    doi: 10.1603/0022-2585-40.3.361pubmed: 12943117google scholar: lookup
  82. Godsey MS Jr, Blackmore MS, Panella NA, Burkhalter K, Gottfried K, Halsey LA, Rutledge R, Langevin SA, Gates R, Lamonte KM, Lambert A, Lanciotti RS, Blackmore CG, Loyless T, Stark L, Oliveri R, Conti L, Komar N. West Nile virus epizootiology in the southeastern United States, 2001.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2005 Spring;5(1):82-9.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2005.5.82pubmed: 15815153google scholar: lookup
  83. Cailly P, Balenghien T, Ezanno P, Fontenille D, Toty C, Tran A. Role of the repartition of wetland breeding sites on the spatial distribution of Anopheles and Culex, human disease vectors in southern France.. Parasit Vectors 2011 May 6;4:65.
    doi: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-65pmc: PMC3114004pubmed: 21548912google scholar: lookup
  84. Chevalier V, Tran A, Durand B. Predictive modeling of West Nile virus transmission risk in the Mediterranean Basin: how far from landing?. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013 Dec 20;11(1):67-90.
    doi: 10.3390/ijerph110100067pmc: PMC3924437pubmed: 24362544google scholar: lookup
  85. Jupp PG. The ecology of West Nile virus in South Africa and the occurrence of outbreaks in humans.. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001 Dec;951:143-52.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02692.xpubmed: 11797772google scholar: lookup
  86. Körsten C, Al-Hosary AA, Schäfer M, Tews BA, Werner D, Kampen H, Vasic A, Silaghi C. Vector Competence of German Aedes punctor (Kirby, 1837) for West Nile Virus Lineages 1 and 2.. Viruses 2022 Dec 14;14(12).
    doi: 10.3390/v14122787pmc: PMC9787774pubmed: 36560791google scholar: lookup
  87. Komar N. West Nile virus surveillance using sentinel birds.. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001 Dec;951:58-73.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02685.xpubmed: 11797805google scholar: lookup
  88. Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, Nemeth N, Edwards E, Hettler D, Davis B, Bowen R, Bunning M. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus.. Emerg Infect Dis 2003 Mar;9(3):311-22.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0903.020628pmc: PMC2958552pubmed: 12643825google scholar: lookup
  89. Nemeth N, Young G, Ndaluka C, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Komar N, Bowen R. Persistent West Nile virus infection in the house sparrow (Passer domesticus).. Arch Virol 2009;154(5):783-9.
    doi: 10.1007/s00705-009-0369-xpubmed: 19347246google scholar: lookup
  90. Komar N, Panella NA, Young GR, Brault AC, Levy CE. Avian hosts of West Nile virus in Arizona.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2013 Sep;89(3):474-81.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.13-0061pmc: PMC3771284pubmed: 23857022google scholar: lookup
  91. Langevin SA, Brault AC, Panella NA, Bowen RA, Komar N. Variation in virulence of West Nile virus strains for house sparrows (Passer domesticus).. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2005 Jan;72(1):99-102.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2005.72.99pubmed: 15728874google scholar: lookup
  92. Apperson CS, Hassan HK, Harrison BA, Savage HM, Aspen SE, Farajollahi A, Crans W, Daniels TJ, Falco RC, Benedict M, Anderson M, McMillen L, Unnasch TR. Host feeding patterns of established and potential mosquito vectors of West Nile virus in the eastern United States.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2004 Spring;4(1):71-82.
    doi: 10.1089/153036604773083013pmc: PMC2581457pubmed: 15018775google scholar: lookup
  93. Lawrie CH, Uzcátegui NY, Gould EA, Nuttall PA. Ixodid and argasid tick species and west nile virus.. Emerg Infect Dis 2004 Apr;10(4):653-7.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1004.030517pmc: PMC3323096pubmed: 15200855google scholar: lookup
  94. Hutcheson HJ, Gorham CH, Machain-Williams C, Loroño-Pino MA, James AM, Marlenee NL, Winn B, Beaty BJ, Blair CD. Experimental transmission of West Nile virus (Flaviviridae: Flavivirus) by Carios capensis ticks from North America.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2005 Fall;5(3):293-5.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2005.5.293pubmed: 16187900google scholar: lookup
  95. Hayes EB, Komar N, Nasci RS, Montgomery SP, O'Leary DR, Campbell GL. Epidemiology and transmission dynamics of West Nile virus disease.. Emerg Infect Dis 2005 Aug;11(8):1167-73.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1108.050289apmc: PMC3320478pubmed: 16102302google scholar: lookup
  96. Giménez-Richarte Á, Ortiz de Salazar MI, Giménez-Richarte MP, Collado M, Fernández PL, Clavijo C, Navarro L, Arbona C, Marco P, Ramos-Rincon JM. Transfusion-transmitted arboviruses: Update and systematic review.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2022 Oct;16(10):e0010843.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0010843pmc: PMC9578600pubmed: 36201547google scholar: lookup
  97. Beard LA, Pelzel AM, Rush BR, Wright AM, Galgut BI, Hennager SG, King AO, Traub-Dargatz JL. Babesia equi-induced anemia in a Quarter Horse and subsequent regulatory response.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2013 Apr 1;242(7):992-6.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.242.7.992pubmed: 23517213google scholar: lookup
  98. Chandriani S, Skewes-Cox P, Zhong W, Ganem DE, Divers TJ, Van Blaricum AJ, Tennant BC, Kistler AL. Identification of a previously undescribed divergent virus from the Flaviviridae family in an outbreak of equine serum hepatitis.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013 Apr 9;110(15):E1407-15.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.1219217110pmc: PMC3625295pubmed: 23509292google scholar: lookup
  99. Cullinane A, Quinlivan M, Nelly M, Patterson H, Kenna R, Garvey M, Gildea S, Lyons P, Flynn M, Galvin P, Neylon M, Jankowska K. Diagnosis of equine infectious anaemia during the 2006 outbreak in Ireland.. Vet Rec 2007 Nov 10;161(19):647-52.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.161.19.647pubmed: 17993655google scholar: lookup
  100. Venter M, Human S, van Niekerk S, Williams J, van Eeden C, Freeman F. Fatal neurologic disease and abortion in mare infected with lineage 1 West Nile virus, South Africa.. Emerg Infect Dis 2011 Aug;17(8):1534-6.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1708.101794pmc: PMC3381566pubmed: 21801644google scholar: lookup
  101. . From the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Laboratory-acquired West Nile virus infections--United States, 2002.. JAMA 2003 Jan 22-29;289(4):414-5.
    doi: 10.1001/jama.289.4.414pubmed: 12549485google scholar: lookup
  102. Venter M, Steyl J, Human S, Weyer J, Zaayman D, Blumberg L, Leman PA, Paweska J, Swanepoel R. Transmission of West Nile virus during horse autopsy.. Emerg Infect Dis 2010 Mar;16(3):573-5.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1603.091042pmc: PMC3322023pubmed: 20202454google scholar: lookup
  103. Busch MP, Wright DJ, Custer B, Tobler LH, Stramer SL, Kleinman SH, Prince HE, Bianco C, Foster G, Petersen LR, Nemo G, Glynn SA. West Nile virus infections projected from blood donor screening data, United States, 2003.. Emerg Infect Dis 2006 Mar;12(3):395-402.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1205.051287pmc: PMC3291460pubmed: 16704775google scholar: lookup
  104. Brown JA, Factor DL, Tkachenko N, Templeton SM, Crall ND, Pape WJ, Bauer MJ, Ambruso DR, Dickey WC, Marfin AA. West Nile viremic blood donors and risk factors for subsequent West Nile fever.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2007 Winter;7(4):479-88.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2006.0611pubmed: 17979539google scholar: lookup
  105. Busch MP, Kleinman SH, Tobler LH, Kamel HT, Norris PJ, Walsh I, Matud JL, Prince HE, Lanciotti RS, Wright DJ, Linnen JM, Caglioti S. Virus and antibody dynamics in acute west nile virus infection.. J Infect Dis 2008 Oct 1;198(7):984-93.
    doi: 10.1086/591467pubmed: 18729783google scholar: lookup
  106. SCHMIDT JR, ELMANSOURY HK. NATURAL AND EXPERIMENTAL INFECTION OF EGYPTIAN EQUINES WITH WEST NILE VIRUS.. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1963 Dec;57:415-27.
    doi: 10.1080/00034983.1963.11686194pubmed: 14101930google scholar: lookup
  107. Bunning ML, Bowen RA, Cropp CB, Sullivan KG, Davis BS, Komar N, Godsey MS, Baker D, Hettler DL, Holmes DA, Biggerstaff BJ, Mitchell CJ. Experimental infection of horses with West Nile virus.. Emerg Infect Dis 2002 Apr;8(4):380-6.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0804.010239pmc: PMC3393377pubmed: 11971771google scholar: lookup
  108. Siger L, Bowen RA, Karaca K, Murray MJ, Gordy PW, Loosmore SM, Audonnet JC, Nordgren RM, Minke JM. Assessment of the efficacy of a single dose of a recombinant vaccine against West Nile virus in response to natural challenge with West Nile virus-infected mosquitoes in horses.. Am J Vet Res 2004 Nov;65(11):1459-62.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2004.65.1459pubmed: 15566080google scholar: lookup
  109. Siger L, Bowen R, Karaca K, Murray M, Jagannatha S, Echols B, Nordgren R, Minke JM. Evaluation of the efficacy provided by a Recombinant Canarypox-Vectored Equine West Nile Virus vaccine against an experimental West Nile Virus intrathecal challenge in horses.. Vet Ther 2006 Fall;7(3):249-56.
    pubmed: 17039448
  110. Long MT, Gibbs EP, Mellencamp MW, Bowen RA, Seino KK, Zhang S, Beachboard SE, Humphrey PP. Efficacy, duration, and onset of immunogenicity of a West Nile virus vaccine, live Flavivirus chimera, in horses with a clinical disease challenge model.. Equine Vet J 2007 Nov;39(6):491-7.
    doi: 10.2746/042516407X217416pubmed: 18065305google scholar: lookup
  111. Seino KK, Long MT, Gibbs EP, Bowen RA, Beachboard SE, Humphrey PP, Dixon MA, Bourgeois MA. Comparative efficacies of three commercially available vaccines against West Nile Virus (WNV) in a short-duration challenge trial involving an equine WNV encephalitis model.. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007 Nov;14(11):1465-71.
    doi: 10.1128/CVI.00249-07pmc: PMC2168174pubmed: 17687109google scholar: lookup
  112. Bowen RA, Bosco-Lauth A, Syvrud K, Thomas A, Meinert TR, Ludlow DR, Cook C, Salt J, Ons E. Protection of horses from West Nile virus Lineage 2 challenge following immunization with a whole, inactivated WNV lineage 1 vaccine.. Vaccine 2014 Sep 22;32(42):5455-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2014.07.093pubmed: 25131745google scholar: lookup
  113. Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Bosco-Lauth A, Hartwig AE, Uddin MJ, Barcelon J, Suen WW, Wang W, Hall RA, Bowen RA. Characterization of non-lethal West Nile Virus (WNV) infection in horses: Subclinical pathology and innate immune response.. Microb Pathog 2017 Feb;103:71-79.
    doi: 10.1016/j.micpath.2016.12.018pubmed: 28012987google scholar: lookup
  114. Bowen RA, Nemeth NM. Experimental infections with West Nile virus.. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2007 Jun;20(3):293-7.
    doi: 10.1097/QCO.0b013e32816b5cadpubmed: 17471040google scholar: lookup
  115. Pacenti M, Sinigaglia A, Franchin E, Pagni S, Lavezzo E, Montarsi F, Capelli G, Barzon L. Human West Nile Virus Lineage 2 Infection: Epidemiological, Clinical, and Virological Findings.. Viruses 2020 Apr 18;12(4).
    doi: 10.3390/v12040458pmc: PMC7232435pubmed: 32325716google scholar: lookup
  116. de Heus P, Kolodziejek J, Camp JV, Dimmel K, Bagó Z, Hubálek Z, van den Hoven R, Cavalleri JV, Nowotny N. Emergence of West Nile virus lineage 2 in Europe: Characteristics of the first seven cases of West Nile neuroinvasive disease in horses in Austria.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020 May;67(3):1189-1197.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13452pmc: PMC7317211pubmed: 31840920google scholar: lookup
  117. Tonry JH, Brown CB, Cropp CB, Co JK, Bennett SN, Nerurkar VR, Kuberski T, Gubler DJ. West Nile virus detection in urine.. Emerg Infect Dis 2005 Aug;11(8):1294-6.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1108.050238pmc: PMC3320471pubmed: 16102323google scholar: lookup
  118. Yeung MW, Shing E, Nelder M, Sander B. Epidemiologic and clinical parameters of West Nile virus infections in humans: a scoping review.. BMC Infect Dis 2017 Sep 6;17(1):609.
    doi: 10.1186/s12879-017-2637-9pmc: PMC5588625pubmed: 28877682google scholar: lookup
  119. Bunning ML, Bowen RA, Cropp B, Sullivan K, Davis B, Komar N, Godsey M, Baker D, Hettler D, Holmes D, Mitchell CJ. Experimental infection of horses with West Nile virus and their potential to infect mosquitoes and serve as amplifying hosts.. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001 Dec;951:338-9.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02712.xpubmed: 11797793google scholar: lookup
  120. Murray KO, Koers E, Baraniuk S, Herrington E, Carter H, Sierra M, Kilborn C, Arafat R. Risk factors for encephalitis from West Nile Virus: a matched case-control study using hospitalized controls.. Zoonoses Public Health 2009 Aug;56(6-7):370-5.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01197.xpubmed: 19175570google scholar: lookup
  121. Murray K, Baraniuk S, Resnick M, Arafat R, Kilborn C, Cain K, Shallenberger R, York TL, Martinez D, Hellums JS, Hellums D, Malkoff M, Elgawley N, McNeely W, Khuwaja SA, Tesh RB. Risk factors for encephalitis and death from West Nile virus infection.. Epidemiol Infect 2006 Dec;134(6):1325-32.
    doi: 10.1017/S0950268806006339pmc: PMC2870518pubmed: 16672108google scholar: lookup
  122. Montgomery RR, Murray KO. Risk factors for West Nile virus infection and disease in populations and individuals.. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2015 Mar;13(3):317-25.
    doi: 10.1586/14787210.2015.1007043pmc: PMC4939899pubmed: 25637260google scholar: lookup
  123. Nash D, Mostashari F, Fine A, Miller J, O'Leary D, Murray K, Huang A, Rosenberg A, Greenberg A, Sherman M, Wong S, Layton M. The outbreak of West Nile virus infection in the New York City area in 1999.. N Engl J Med 2001 Jun 14;344(24):1807-14.
    doi: 10.1056/NEJM200106143442401pubmed: 11407341google scholar: lookup
  124. Popescu CP, Florescu SA, Hasbun R, Harxhi A, Evendar R, Kahraman H, Neuberger A, Codreanu D, Zaharia MF, Tosun S, Ceausu E, Ruta SM, Dragovac G, Pshenichnaya N, Gopatsa G, Shmaylenko O, Nagy É, Malbasa JD, Strbac M, Pandak N, Pullukcu H, Lakatos B, Cag Y, Cascio A, Coledan I, Oncu S, Erdem H. Prediction of unfavorable outcomes in West Nile virus neuroinvasive infection - Result of a multinational ID-IRI study.. J Clin Virol 2020 Jan;122:104213.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jcv.2019.104213pubmed: 31778945google scholar: lookup
  125. Popescu CP, Florescu SA, Cotar AI, Badescu D, Ceianu CS, Zaharia M, Tardei G, Codreanu D, Ceausu E, Ruta SM. Re-emergence of severe West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease in humans in Romania, 2012 to 2017-implications for travel medicine.. Travel Med Infect Dis 2018 Mar-Apr;22:30-35.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2018.03.001pubmed: 29544774google scholar: lookup
  126. Cantile C, Di Guardo G, Eleni C, Arispici M. Clinical and neuropathological features of West Nile virus equine encephalomyelitis in Italy.. Equine Vet J 2000 Jan;32(1):31-5.
    doi: 10.2746/042516400777612080pubmed: 10661382google scholar: lookup
  127. Venter M, Human S, Zaayman D, Gerdes GH, Williams J, Steyl J, Leman PA, Paweska JT, Setzkorn H, Rous G, Murray S, Parker R, Donnellan C, Swanepoel R. Lineage 2 west nile virus as cause of fatal neurologic disease in horses, South Africa.. Emerg Infect Dis 2009 Jun;15(6):877-84.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1506.081515pmc: PMC2727306pubmed: 19523285google scholar: lookup
  128. Porter MB, Long MT, Getman LM, Giguère S, MacKay RJ, Lester GD, Alleman AR, Wamsley HL, Franklin RP, Jacks S, Buergelt CD, Detrisac CJ. West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in horses: 46 cases (2001).. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003 May 1;222(9):1241-7.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2003.222.1241pubmed: 12725313google scholar: lookup
  129. Weese JS, Baird JD, DeLay J, Kenney DG, Staempfli HR, Viel L, Parent J, Smith-Maxie L, Poma R. West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in horses in Ontario: 28 cases.. Can Vet J 2003 Jun;44(6):469-73.
    pmc: PMC340169pubmed: 12839240
  130. Ward MP, Levy M, Thacker HL, Ash M, Norman SK, Moore GE, Webb PW. Investigation of an outbreak of encephalomyelitis caused by West Nile virus in 136 horses.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004 Jul 1;225(1):84-9.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2004.225.84pubmed: 15239478google scholar: lookup
  131. Schuler LA, Khaitsa ML, Dyer NW, Stoltenow CL. Evaluation of an outbreak of West Nile virus infection in horses: 569 cases (2002).. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004 Oct 1;225(7):1084-9.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2004.225.1084pubmed: 15515988google scholar: lookup
  132. Ward MP, Schuermann JA, Highfield LD, Murray KO. Characteristics of an outbreak of West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in a previously uninfected population of horses.. Vet Microbiol 2006 Dec 20;118(3-4):255-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2006.07.016pubmed: 16971067google scholar: lookup
  133. Kutasi O, Bakonyi T, Lecollinet S, Biksi I, Ferenczi E, Bahuon C, Sardi S, Zientara S, Szenci O. Equine encephalomyelitis outbreak caused by a genetic lineage 2 West Nile virus in Hungary.. J Vet Intern Med 2011 May-Jun;25(3):586-91.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2011.0715.xpubmed: 21457323google scholar: lookup
  134. Fehér OE, Fehérvári P, Tolnai CH, Forgách P, Malik P, Jerzsele Á, Wagenhoffer Z, Szenci O, Korbacska-Kutasi O. Epidemiology and Clinical Manifestation of West Nile Virus Infections of Equines in Hungary, 2007-2020.. Viruses 2022 Nov 18;14(11).
    doi: 10.3390/v14112551pmc: PMC9694158pubmed: 36423160google scholar: lookup
  135. Salazar P, Traub-Dargatz JL, Morley PS, Wilmot DD, Steffen DJ, Cunningham WE, Salman MD. Outcome of equids with clinical signs of West Nile virus infection and factors associated with death.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004 Jul 15;225(2):267-74.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2004.225.267pubmed: 15323385google scholar: lookup
  136. Read AJ, Finlaison DS, Gu X, Hick PM, Moloney BJ, Wright T, Kirkland PD. Clinical and epidemiological features of West Nile virus equine encephalitis in New South Wales, Australia, 2011.. Aust Vet J 2019 May;97(5):133-143.
    doi: 10.1111/avj.12810pubmed: 31025323google scholar: lookup
  137. Sirbu A, Ceianu CS, Panculescu-Gatej RI, Vazquez A, Tenorio A, Rebreanu R, Niedrig M, Nicolescu G, Pistol A. Outbreak of West Nile virus infection in humans, Romania, July to October 2010.. Euro Surveill 2011 Jan 13;16(2).
    doi: 10.2807/ese.16.02.19762-enpubmed: 21251489google scholar: lookup
  138. Kutasi O, Fehér O, Sárdi S, Balogh N, Nagy A, Moravszki L, Bódai E, Szenci O. Characterisation of the cerebrospinal fluid of horses with West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease.. Acta Vet Hung 2020 Sep 4;68(2):177-185.
    doi: 10.1556/004.2020.00022pubmed: 32894729google scholar: lookup
  139. Snook CS, Hyman SS, Del Piero F, Palmer JE, Ostlund EN, Barr BS, Desrochers AM, Reilly LK. West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in eight horses.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2001 May 15;218(10):1576-9.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2001.218.1576pubmed: 11393367google scholar: lookup
  140. Lohmann KL, Sieg M, Landmann M, Ganzenberg S, Arnold C, Vahlenkamp T, Ulrich RG. [West-Nile-Virus infections in 12 horses in east-central Germany].. Tierarztl Prax Ausg G Grosstiere Nutztiere 2022 Dec;50(6):362-376.
    doi: 10.1055/a-1965-0307pubmed: 36516822google scholar: lookup
  141. Jean CM, Honarmand S, Louie JK, Glaser CA. Risk factors for West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease, California, 2005.. Emerg Infect Dis 2007 Dec;13(12):1918-20.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1312.061265pmc: PMC2876738pubmed: 18258047google scholar: lookup
  142. Mostashari F, Bunning ML, Kitsutani PT, Singer DA, Nash D, Cooper MJ, Katz N, Liljebjelke KA, Biggerstaff BJ, Fine AD, Layton MC, Mullin SM, Johnson AJ, Martin DA, Hayes EB, Campbell GL. Epidemic West Nile encephalitis, New York, 1999: results of a household-based seroepidemiological survey.. Lancet 2001 Jul 28;358(9278):261-4.
    doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05480-0pubmed: 11498211google scholar: lookup
  143. Zou S, Foster GA, Dodd RY, Petersen LR, Stramer SL. West Nile fever characteristics among viremic persons identified through blood donor screening.. J Infect Dis 2010 Nov 1;202(9):1354-61.
    doi: 10.1086/656602pubmed: 20874087google scholar: lookup
  144. Sejvar JJ. Clinical manifestations and outcomes of West Nile virus infection.. Viruses 2014 Feb 6;6(2):606-23.
    doi: 10.3390/v6020606pmc: PMC3939474pubmed: 24509812google scholar: lookup
  145. Sejvar JJ, Marfin AA. Manifestations of West Nile neuroinvasive disease.. Rev Med Virol 2006 Jul-Aug;16(4):209-24.
    doi: 10.1002/rmv.501pubmed: 16906589google scholar: lookup
  146. Bertram FM, Thompson PN, Venter M. Epidemiology and Clinical Presentation of West Nile Virus Infection in Horses in South Africa, 2016-2017.. Pathogens 2020 Dec 30;10(1).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10010020pmc: PMC7823741pubmed: 33396935google scholar: lookup
  147. Davis LE, DeBiasi R, Goade DE, Haaland KY, Harrington JA, Harnar JB, Pergam SA, King MK, DeMasters BK, Tyler KL. West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease.. Ann Neurol 2006 Sep;60(3):286-300.
    doi: 10.1002/ana.20959pubmed: 16983682google scholar: lookup
  148. Asnis DS, Conetta R, Waldman G, Teixeira AA. The West Nile virus encephalitis outbreak in the United States (1999-2000): from Flushing, New York, to beyond its borders.. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001 Dec;951:161-71.
    pubmed: 11797774doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02694.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  149. Sampathkumar P. West Nile virus: epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and prevention.. Mayo Clin Proc 2003 Sep;78(9):1137-43; quiz 1144.
    doi: 10.4065/78.9.1137pmc: PMC7125680pubmed: 12962168google scholar: lookup
  150. Sejvar JJ, Leis AA, Stokic DS, Van Gerpen JA, Marfin AA, Webb R, Haddad MB, Tierney BC, Slavinski SA, Polk JL, Dostrow V, Winkelmann M, Petersen LR. Acute flaccid paralysis and West Nile virus infection.. Emerg Infect Dis 2003 Jul;9(7):788-93.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0907.030129pmc: PMC3023428pubmed: 12890318google scholar: lookup
  151. Agamanolis DP, Leslie MJ, Caveny EA, Guarner J, Shieh WJ, Zaki SR. Neuropathological findings in West Nile virus encephalitis: a case report.. Ann Neurol 2003 Oct;54(4):547-51.
    doi: 10.1002/ana.10731pubmed: 14520673google scholar: lookup
  152. Yeung MW, Tomlinson G, Loeb M, Sander B. Health-related quality of life in persons with West Nile virus infection: a longitudinal cohort study.. Health Qual Life Outcomes 2017 Oct 23;15(1):210.
    doi: 10.1186/s12955-017-0787-5pmc: PMC5654088pubmed: 29061146google scholar: lookup
  153. Garg S, Jampol LM. Systemic and intraocular manifestations of West Nile virus infection.. Surv Ophthalmol 2005 Jan-Feb;50(1):3-13.
    doi: 10.1016/j.survophthal.2004.10.001pubmed: 15621074google scholar: lookup
  154. Hershberger VS, Augsburger JJ, Hutchins RK, Miller SA, Horwitz JA, Bergmann M. Chorioretinal lesions in nonfatal cases of West Nile virus infection.. Ophthalmology 2003 Sep;110(9):1732-6.
    doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(03)00720-6pubmed: 13129870google scholar: lookup
  155. Chowers MY, Lang R, Nassar F, Ben-David D, Giladi M, Rubinshtein E, Itzhaki A, Mishal J, Siegman-Igra Y, Kitzes R, Pick N, Landau Z, Wolf D, Bin H, Mendelson E, Pitlik SD, Weinberger M. Clinical characteristics of the West Nile fever outbreak, Israel, 2000.. Emerg Infect Dis 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):675-8.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0704.017414pmc: PMC2631759pubmed: 11585531google scholar: lookup
  156. Racsa L, Gander R, Chung W, Southern P, Le J, Beal S, Lee F, Cavuoti D, Reisch J, Alatoom A. Clinical features of West Nile virus epidemic in Dallas, Texas, 2012.. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2014 Feb;78(2):132-6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.11.006pubmed: 24316017google scholar: lookup
  157. Mazurek JM, Winpisinger K, Mattson BJ, Duffy R, Moolenaar RL. The epidemiology and early clinical features of West Nile virus infection.. Am J Emerg Med 2005 Jul;23(4):536-43.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ajem.2004.11.005pubmed: 16032627google scholar: lookup
  158. Gamino V, Escribano-Romero E, Gutiérrez-Guzmán AV, Blázquez AB, Saiz JC, Höfle U. Oculopathologic findings in flavivirus-infected gallinaceous birds.. Vet Pathol 2014 Nov;51(6):1113-6.
    doi: 10.1177/0300985813516640pubmed: 24395913google scholar: lookup
  159. Keenan AV, Oster S, McMullen RJ Jr, Shaw GC, Dubielzig RR, Teixeira LBC, Bellah JR, Moore PA, Boveland SD. Clinical and pathologic evaluation of chorioretinal lesions in wild owl species.. Vet Ophthalmol 2022 Mar;25(2):128-139.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12942pubmed: 34590771google scholar: lookup
  160. Pauli AM, Cruz-Martinez LA, Ponder JB, Redig PT, Glaser AL, Klauss G, Schoster JV, Wünschmann A. Ophthalmologic and oculopathologic findings in red-tailed hawks and Cooper's hawks with naturally acquired West Nile virus infection.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2007 Oct 15;231(8):1240-8.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.231.8.1240pubmed: 17937556google scholar: lookup
  161. Wünschmann A, Armién AG, Khatri M, Martinez LC, Willette M, Glaser A, Alvarez J, Redig P. Ocular Lesions in Red-Tailed Hawks ( Buteo jamaicensis) With Naturally Acquired West Nile Disease.. Vet Pathol 2017 Mar;54(2):277-287.
    doi: 10.1177/0300985816669404pubmed: 27694424google scholar: lookup
  162. Carson PJ, Konewko P, Wold KS, Mariani P, Goli S, Bergloff P, Crosby RD. Long-term clinical and neuropsychological outcomes of West Nile virus infection.. Clin Infect Dis 2006 Sep 15;43(6):723-30.
    doi: 10.1086/506939pubmed: 16912946google scholar: lookup
  163. Murray KO, Nolan MS, Ronca SE, Datta S, Govindarajan K, Narayana PA, Salazar L, Woods SP, Hasbun R. The Neurocognitive and MRI Outcomes of West Nile Virus Infection: Preliminary Analysis Using an External Control Group.. Front Neurol 2018;9:111.
    doi: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00111pmc: PMC5880927pubmed: 29636722google scholar: lookup
  164. Weatherhead JE, Miller VE, Garcia MN, Hasbun R, Salazar L, Dimachkie MM, Murray KO. Long-term neurological outcomes in West Nile virus-infected patients: an observational study.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2015 May;92(5):1006-1012.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.14-0616pmc: PMC4426557pubmed: 25802426google scholar: lookup
  165. Sejvar JJ. The long-term outcomes of human West Nile virus infection.. Clin Infect Dis 2007 Jun 15;44(12):1617-24.
    doi: 10.1086/518281pubmed: 17516407google scholar: lookup
  166. Sejvar JJ, Curns AT, Welburg L, Jones JF, Lundgren LM, Capuron L, Pape J, Reeves WC, Campbel GL. Neurocognitive and functional outcomes in persons recovering from West Nile virus illness.. J Neuropsychol 2008 Sep;2(2):477-99.
    doi: 10.1348/174866407X218312pubmed: 19824176google scholar: lookup
  167. Hayes EB, Sejvar JJ, Zaki SR, Lanciotti RS, Bode AV, Campbell GL. Virology, pathology, and clinical manifestations of West Nile virus disease.. Emerg Infect Dis 2005 Aug;11(8):1174-9.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1108.050289bpmc: PMC3320472pubmed: 16102303google scholar: lookup
  168. Bouffard JP, Riudavets MA, Holman R, Rushing EJ. Neuropathology of the brain and spinal cord in human West Nile virus infection.. Clin Neuropathol 2004 Mar-Apr;23(2):59-61.
    pubmed: 15074579
  169. Wamsley HL, Alleman AR, Porter MB, Long MT. Findings in cerebrospinal fluids of horses infected with West Nile virus: 30 cases (2001).. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2002 Nov 1;221(9):1303-5.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2002.221.1303pubmed: 12418697google scholar: lookup
  170. Steinman A, Banet C, Sutton GA, Yadin H, Hadar S, Brill A. Clinical signs of West Nile virus encephalomyelitis in horses during the outbreak in Israel in 2000.. Vet Rec 2002 Jul 13;151(2):47-9.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.151.2.47pubmed: 12148602google scholar: lookup
  171. Cantile C, Del Piero F, Di Guardo G, Arispici M. Pathologic and immunohistochemical findings in naturally occuring West Nile virus infection in horses.. Vet Pathol 2001 Jul;38(4):414-21.
    doi: 10.1354/vp.38-4-414pubmed: 11467475google scholar: lookup
  172. Williams JH, van Niekerk S, Human S, van Wilpe E, Venter M. Pathology of fatal lineage 1 and 2 West Nile virus infections in horses in South Africa.. J S Afr Vet Assoc 2014 Sep 1;85(1):1105.
    doi: 10.4102/jsava.v85i1.1105pubmed: 25686260google scholar: lookup
  173. Tber A. West Nile fever in horses in Morocco.. Bull. De L’Office Int. Des Epizoot. 1996;11:867–869.
  174. Sampson BA, Armbrustmacher V. West Nile encephalitis: the neuropathology of four fatalities.. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2001 Dec;951:172-8.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb02695.xpubmed: 11797775google scholar: lookup
  175. Sampson BA, Nields H, Armbrustmacher V, Asnis DS. Muscle weakness in West Nile encephalitis is due to destruction of motor neurons.. Hum Pathol 2003 Jun;34(6):628-9.
    doi: 10.1016/S0046-8177(03)00203-Xpubmed: 12827621google scholar: lookup
  176. Shieh WJ, Guarner J, Layton M, Fine A, Miller J, Nash D, Campbell GL, Roehrig JT, Gubler DJ, Zaki SR. The role of pathology in an investigation of an outbreak of West Nile encephalitis in New York, 1999.. Emerg Infect Dis 2000 Jul-Aug;6(4):370-2.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0604.000407pmc: PMC2640902pubmed: 10905969google scholar: lookup
  177. Guarner J, Shieh WJ, Hunter S, Paddock CD, Morken T, Campbell GL, Marfin AA, Zaki SR. Clinicopathologic study and laboratory diagnosis of 23 cases with West Nile virus encephalomyelitis.. Hum Pathol 2004 Aug;35(8):983-90.
    doi: 10.1016/j.humpath.2004.04.008pubmed: 15297965google scholar: lookup
  178. Kelley TW, Prayson RA, Ruiz AI, Isada CM, Gordon SM. The neuropathology of West Nile virus meningoencephalitis. A report of two cases and review of the literature.. Am J Clin Pathol 2003 May;119(5):749-53.
    doi: 10.1309/PU4R76JJMG1F81RPpubmed: 12760295google scholar: lookup
  179. Fratkin JD, Leis AA, Stokic DS, Slavinski SA, Geiss RW. Spinal cord neuropathology in human West Nile virus infection.. Arch Pathol Lab Med 2004 May;128(5):533-7.
    doi: 10.5858/2004-128-533-SCNIHWpubmed: 15086282google scholar: lookup
  180. Leis AA, Fratkin J, Stokic DS, Harrington T, Webb RM, Slavinski SA. West Nile poliomyelitis.. Lancet Infect Dis 2003 Jan;3(1):9-10.
    doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(03)00478-Xpubmed: 12505023google scholar: lookup
  181. Omalu BI, Shakir AA, Wang G, Lipkin WI, Wiley CA. Fatal fulminant pan-meningo-polioencephalitis due to West Nile virus.. Brain Pathol 2003 Oct;13(4):465-72.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1750-3639.2003.tb00477.xpmc: PMC8095851pubmed: 14655752google scholar: lookup
  182. Lanciotti RS, Kerst AJ, Nasci RS, Godsey MS, Mitchell CJ, Savage HM, Komar N, Panella NA, Allen BC, Volpe KE, Davis BS, Roehrig JT. Rapid detection of west nile virus from human clinical specimens, field-collected mosquitoes, and avian samples by a TaqMan reverse transcriptase-PCR assay.. J Clin Microbiol 2000 Nov;38(11):4066-71.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.38.11.4066-4071.2000pmc: PMC87542pubmed: 11060069google scholar: lookup
  183. Lanciotti RS, Kerst AJ. Nucleic acid sequence-based amplification assays for rapid detection of West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viruses.. J Clin Microbiol 2001 Dec;39(12):4506-13.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.39.12.4506-4513.2001pmc: PMC88574pubmed: 11724870google scholar: lookup
  184. Yee KT, Vetter DE. Detection of West Nile Virus Envelope Protein in Brain Tissue with an Immunohistochemical Assay.. Methods Mol Biol 2023;2585:51-69.
    doi: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2760-0_7pubmed: 36331765google scholar: lookup
  185. Hirota J, Shimizu S, Shibahara T, Isobe T, Yamada M, Tanimura N. Development of monoclonal antibodies to West Nile virus and their application in immunohistochemistry.. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2012 Nov;19(11):1853-8.
    doi: 10.1128/CVI.00492-12pmc: PMC3491555pubmed: 22993408google scholar: lookup
  186. Toplu N, Oğuzoğlu TÇ, Ural K, Albayrak H, Ozan E, Ertürk A, Epikmen ET. West Nile Virus Infection in Horses: Detection by Immunohistochemistry, In Situ Hybridization, and ELISA.. Vet Pathol 2015 Nov;52(6):1073-6.
    doi: 10.1177/0300985815570067pubmed: 25677341google scholar: lookup
  187. Pennick KE, McKnight CA, Patterson JS, Latimer KS, Maes RK, Wise AG, Kiupel M. Diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry for Eastern equine encephalitis virus and West Nile virus in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded brain tissue of horses.. J Vet Diagn Invest 2012 Mar;24(2):333-8.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638711435230pubmed: 22379048google scholar: lookup
  188. Delcambre GH, Liu J, Streit WJ, Shaw GPJ, Vallario K, Herrington J, Wenzlow N, Barr KL, Long MT. Phenotypic characterisation of cell populations in the brains of horses experimentally infected with West Nile virus.. Equine Vet J 2017 Nov;49(6):815-820.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12697pubmed: 28470955google scholar: lookup
  189. Besselaar TG, Blackburn NK, Aldridge N. Comparison of an antibody-capture IgM enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with IgM-indirect immunofluorescence for the diagnosis of acute Sindbis and West Nile infections.. J Virol Methods 1989 Sep;25(3):337-45.
    doi: 10.1016/0166-0934(89)90060-8pubmed: 2555380google scholar: lookup
  190. Blitvich BJ, Bowen RA, Marlenee NL, Hall RA, Bunning ML, Beaty BJ. Epitope-blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for detection of west nile virus antibodies in domestic mammals.. J Clin Microbiol 2003 Jun;41(6):2676-9.
    doi: 10.1128/JCM.41.6.2676-2679.2003pmc: PMC156482pubmed: 12791902google scholar: lookup
  191. Welch RJ, Anderson BL, Litwin CM. Evaluation of a new commercial enzyme immunoassay for the detection of IgM antibodies to West Nile virus using a ratio method to eliminate nonspecific reactivity.. J Clin Lab Anal 2008;22(5):362-6.
    doi: 10.1002/jcla.20271pmc: PMC6649231pubmed: 18803272google scholar: lookup
  192. Choi KS, Ko YJ, Nah JJ, Kim YJ, Kang SY, Yoon KJ, Joo YS. Monoclonal antibody-based competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detecting and quantifying West Nile virus-neutralizing antibodies in horse sera.. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007 Feb;14(2):134-8.
    doi: 10.1128/CVI.00322-06pmc: PMC1797797pubmed: 17135450google scholar: lookup
  193. Olufemi OT, Barba M, Daly JM. A Scoping Review of West Nile Virus Seroprevalence Studies among African Equids.. Pathogens 2021 Jul 15;10(7).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens10070899pmc: PMC8308515pubmed: 34358049google scholar: lookup
  194. Hirota J, Nishi H, Matsuda H, Tsunemitsu H, Shimiz S. Cross-reactivity of Japanese encephalitis virus-vaccinated horse sera in serodiagnosis of West Nile virus.. J Vet Med Sci 2010 Mar;72(3):369-72.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.09-0311pubmed: 19996564google scholar: lookup
  195. Joó K, Bakonyi T, Szenci O, Sárdi S, Ferenczi E, Barna M, Malik P, Hubalek Z, Fehér O, Kutasi O. Comparison of assays for the detection of West Nile virus antibodies in equine serum after natural infection or vaccination.. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2017 Jan;183:1-6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2016.10.015pubmed: 28063471google scholar: lookup
  196. Calisher CH, Karabatsos N, Dalrymple JM, Shope RE, Porterfield JS, Westaway EG, Brandt WE. Antigenic relationships between flaviviruses as determined by cross-neutralization tests with polyclonal antisera.. J Gen Virol 1989 Jan;70 ( Pt 1):37-43.
    doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-70-1-37pubmed: 2543738google scholar: lookup
  197. Benjelloun A, El Harrak M, Belkadi B. West Nile Disease Epidemiology in North-West Africa: Bibliographical Review.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2016 Dec;63(6):e153-e159.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.12341pubmed: 25753775google scholar: lookup
  198. Eybpoosh S, Fazlalipour M, Baniasadi V, Pouriayevali MH, Sadeghi F, Ahmadi Vasmehjani A, Karbalaie Niya MH, Hewson R, Salehi-Vaziri M. Epidemiology of West Nile Virus in the Eastern Mediterranean region: A systematic review.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019 Jan;13(1):e0007081.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007081pmc: PMC6368338pubmed: 30695031google scholar: lookup
  199. Metz MBC, Olufemi OT, Daly JM, Barba M. Systematic review and meta-analysis of seroprevalence studies of West Nile virus in equids in Europe between 2001 and 2018.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021 Jul;68(4):1814-1823.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13866pubmed: 33012076google scholar: lookup
  200. Abdullahi IN, Emeribe AU, Ghamba PE, Omosigho PO, Bello ZM, Oderinde BS, Fasogbon SA, Olayemi L, Daneji IM, Musa MH, Nwofe JO, Onukegbe NB, Okume CC, Musa S, Gwarzo AM, Ajagbe OOR. Distribution pattern and prevalence of West Nile virus infection in Nigeria from 1950 to 2020: a systematic review.. Epidemiol Health 2020;42:e2020071.
    doi: 10.4178/epih.e2020071pmc: PMC8137371pubmed: 33254358google scholar: lookup
  201. Fang Y, Khater EIM, Xue JB, Ghallab EHS, Li YY, Jiang TG, Li SZ. Epidemiology of Mosquito-Borne Viruses in Egypt: A Systematic Review.. Viruses 2022 Jul 20;14(7).
    doi: 10.3390/v14071577pmc: PMC9322113pubmed: 35891557google scholar: lookup
  202. Ometto T, Durigon EL, de Araujo J, Aprelon R, de Aguiar DM, Cavalcante GT, Melo RM, Levi JE, de Azevedo Júnior SM, Petry MV, Neto IS, Serafini P, Villalobos E, Cunha EM, Lara Mdo C, Nava AF, Nardi MS, Hurtado R, Rodrigues R, Sherer AL, Sherer Jde F, Geraldi MP, de Seixas MM, Peterka C, Bandeira Dde S, Pradel J, Vachiery N, Labruna MB, de Camargo LM, Lanciotti R, Lefrançois T. West Nile virus surveillance, Brazil, 2008-2010.. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2013 Nov;107(11):723-30.
    doi: 10.1093/trstmh/trt081pubmed: 24008895google scholar: lookup
  203. Bargaoui R, Lecollinet S, Lancelot R. Mapping the serological prevalence rate of West Nile fever in equids, Tunisia.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2015 Feb;62(1):55-66.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.12077pubmed: 23906318google scholar: lookup
  204. García-Bocanegra I, Arenas-Montes A, Jaén-Téllez JA, Napp S, Fernández-Morente M, Arenas A. Use of sentinel serosurveillance of mules and donkeys in the monitoring of West Nile virus infection.. Vet J 2012 Nov;194(2):262-4.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.04.017pubmed: 22633828google scholar: lookup
  205. Mongoh MN, Khaitsa ML, Dyer NW. Environmental and ecological determinants of West Nile virus occurrence in horses in North Dakota, 2002.. Epidemiol Infect 2007 Jan;135(1):57-66.
    doi: 10.1017/S0950268806006662pmc: PMC2870555pubmed: 16753077google scholar: lookup
  206. Corrigan RL, Waldner C, Epp T, Wright J, Whitehead SM, Bangura H, Young E, Townsend HG. Prediction of human cases of West Nile virus by equine cases, Saskatchewan, Canada, 2003.. Prev Vet Med 2006 Oct 17;76(3-4):263-72.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2006.05.008pubmed: 16806542google scholar: lookup
  207. Lustig Y, Sofer D, Bucris ED, Mendelson E. Surveillance and Diagnosis of West Nile Virus in the Face of Flavivirus Cross-Reactivity.. Front Microbiol 2018;9:2421.
    doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02421pmc: PMC6194321pubmed: 30369916google scholar: lookup
  208. Prince HE, Tobler LH, Yeh C, Gefter N, Custer B, Busch MP. Persistence of West Nile virus-specific antibodies in viremic blood donors.. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2007 Sep;14(9):1228-30.
    doi: 10.1128/CVI.00233-07pmc: PMC2043320pubmed: 17652525google scholar: lookup
  209. Roehrig JT, Nash D, Maldin B, Labowitz A, Martin DA, Lanciotti RS, Campbell GL. Persistence of virus-reactive serum immunoglobulin m antibody in confirmed west nile virus encephalitis cases.. Emerg Infect Dis 2003 Mar;9(3):376-9.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0903.020531pmc: PMC2958550pubmed: 12643836google scholar: lookup
  210. Porter MB, Long M, Gosche DG, Schott HM 2nd, Hines MT, Rossano M, Sellon DC. Immunoglobulin M-capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay testing of cerebrospinal fluid and serum from horses exposed to west nile virus by vaccination or natural infection.. J Vet Intern Med 2004 Nov-Dec;18(6):866-70.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2004.tb02634.xpubmed: 15638271google scholar: lookup
  211. Davidson AH, Traub-Dargatz JL, Rodeheaver RM, Ostlund EN, Pedersen DD, Moorhead RG, Stricklin JB, Dewell RD, Roach SD, Long RE, Albers SJ, Callan RJ, Salman MD. Immunologic responses to West Nile virus in vaccinated and clinically affected horses.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005 Jan 15;226(2):240-5.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2005.226.240pubmed: 15706975google scholar: lookup
  212. Ostlund EN, Andresen JE, Andresen M. West Nile encephalitis.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2000 Dec;16(3):427-41.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30087-1pubmed: 11219341google scholar: lookup
  213. Long MT, Jeter W, Hernandez J, Sellon DC, Gosche D, Gillis K, Bille E, Gibbs EP. Diagnostic performance of the equine IgM capture ELISA for serodiagnosis of West Nile virus infection.. J Vet Intern Med 2006 May-Jun;20(3):608-13.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2006.tb02904.xpubmed: 16734097google scholar: lookup
  214. Khatibzadeh SM, Gold CB, Keggan AE, Perkins GA, Glaser AL, Dubovi EJ, Wagner B. West Nile virus-specific immunoglobulin isotype responses in vaccinated and infected horses.. Am J Vet Res 2015 Jan;76(1):92-100.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.76.1.92pubmed: 25535666google scholar: lookup
  215. Guerrero-Carvajal F, Bravo-Barriga D, Martín-Cuervo M, Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Ferraguti M, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Llorente F, Alonso JM, Frontera E. Serological evidence of co-circulation of West Nile and Usutu viruses in equids from western Spain.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021 May;68(3):1432-1444.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13810pubmed: 32853452google scholar: lookup
  216. Fehér O, Bakonyi T, Barna M, Nagy A, Takács M, Szenci O, Joó K, Sárdi S, Korbacska-Kutasi O. Serum neutralising antibody titres against a lineage 2 neuroinvasive West Nile Virus strain in response to vaccination with an inactivated lineage 1 vaccine in a European endemic area.. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2020 Sep;227:110087.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2020.110087pubmed: 32629300google scholar: lookup
  217. Kemmerly SA. Diagnosis and treatment of west nile infections.. Ochsner J 2003 Summer;5(3):16-7.
    pmc: PMC3111824pubmed: 21765764
  218. Patel CB, Trikamji BV, Mathisen GE, Mishra SK. Southern California neuroinvasive West Nile virus case series.. Neurol Sci 2018 Feb;39(2):251-257.
    doi: 10.1007/s10072-017-3164-6pubmed: 29119349google scholar: lookup
  219. Patel CB, Trikamji B, Mathisen G, Yim C, Zipser B, Mishra S. MRI Ventral Nerve Root Enhancement in Five Patients Presenting With Extremity Weakness Secondary to Neuroinvasive West Nile Virus.. J Clin Neuromuscul Dis 2016 Sep;18(1):41-3.
    doi: 10.1097/01.cnd.0000496973.95654.fdpubmed: 27552389google scholar: lookup
  220. Moreno-Reina C, Martínez-Moya M, Piñero-González de la Peña P, Caro-Domínguez P. Neuroinvasive disease due to West Nile virus: Clinical and imaging findings associated with a re-emerging pathogen.. Radiologia (Engl Ed) 2022 Sep-Oct;64(5):473-483.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rxeng.2021.06.007pubmed: 36243447google scholar: lookup
  221. Petropoulou KA, Gordon SM, Prayson RA, Ruggierri PM. West Nile virus meningoencephalitis: MR imaging findings.. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2005 Sep;26(8):1986-95.
    pmc: PMC8148846pubmed: 16155147
  222. Garrett KS. Special Diagnostic Techniques in Equine Neurology (Radiography, Ultrasonography, Computed Tomography, and Magnetic Resonance Imaging).. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2022 Aug;38(2):171-188.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2022.04.001pubmed: 35810148google scholar: lookup
  223. Sun JA, Hallowell TC. Magnetic resonance imaging, clinicopathologic findings, and clinical progression of a puppy with confirmed Eastern equine encephalitis virus.. Can Vet J 2021 Dec;62(12):1298-1303.
    pmc: PMC8591575pubmed: 34857965
  224. Ng T, Hathaway D, Jennings N, Champ D, Chiang YW, Chu HJ. Equine vaccine for West Nile virus.. Dev Biol (Basel) 2003;114:221-7.
    pubmed: 14677692
  225. Liu SA, Haque M, Stanfield B, Andrews FM, Roy AA, Kousoulas KG. A recombinant fusion protein consisting of West Nile virus envelope domain III fused in-frame with equine CD40 ligand induces antiviral immune responses in horses.. Vet Microbiol 2017 Jan;198:51-58.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.12.008pubmed: 28062007google scholar: lookup
  226. Wang J, Yang J, Ge J, Hua R, Liu R, Li X, Wang X, Shao Y, Sun E, Wu D, Qin C, Wen Z, Bu Z. Newcastle disease virus-vectored West Nile fever vaccine is immunogenic in mammals and poultry.. Virol J 2016 Jun 24;13:109.
    doi: 10.1186/s12985-016-0568-5pmc: PMC4920995pubmed: 27342050google scholar: lookup
  227. Wang J, Bardelli M, Espinosa DA, Pedotti M, Ng TS, Bianchi S, Simonelli L, Lim EXY, Foglierini M, Zatta F, Jaconi S, Beltramello M, Cameroni E, Fibriansah G, Shi J, Barca T, Pagani I, Rubio A, Broccoli V, Vicenzi E, Graham V, Pullan S, Dowall S, Hewson R, Jurt S, Zerbe O, Stettler K, Lanzavecchia A, Sallusto F, Cavalli A, Harris E, Lok SM, Varani L, Corti D. A Human Bi-specific Antibody against Zika Virus with High Therapeutic Potential.. Cell 2017 Sep 21;171(1):229-241.e15.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.09.002pmc: PMC5673489pubmed: 28938115google scholar: lookup
  228. Martins IC, Ricardo RC, Santos NC. Dengue, West Nile, and Zika Viruses: Potential Novel Antiviral Biologics Drugs Currently at Discovery and Preclinical Development Stages.. Pharmaceutics 2022 Nov 20;14(11).
    doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14112535pmc: PMC9697021pubmed: 36432726google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.