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Frontiers in zoology2025; 22(1); 20; doi: 10.1186/s12983-025-00576-0

Do stereotypies help or harm? Exploring the link between cortisol level and abnormal behaviours in animals: a review.

Abstract: Stereotypical behaviours in animals, often linked to stress, are repetitive actions that may lack a clear purpose. This review examines the relationship between cortisol levels, a key stress hormone, and stereotypic behaviour across various animal species, including zoo mammals, horses, and dogs. A total of 99 studies were analysed to understand whether elevated cortisol levels are associated with stereotypies. While many studies report a positive correlation between cortisol and stereotypical behaviour, more detailed research suggests that these behaviours may also serve as coping mechanisms, potentially reducing cortisol levels. The findings highlight the complexity of this relationship, as some studies show a negative or no correlation at all. To address these inconsistencies, this review critically examines the existing evidence and aims to provide a clearer understanding of the relationship. The review emphasises the need for further research, including long-term studies and the inclusion of additional hormonal markers, to clarify whether stereotypical behaviours only reflect chronic stress or also represent stress-relieving adaptive responses.
© 2025. The Author(s).
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Publication Date: 2025-08-13 PubMed ID: 40804404PubMed Central: PMC12344989DOI: 10.1186/s12983-025-00576-0Google Scholar: Lookup
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  • Journal Article
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Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The article reviews multiple studies to explore whether stereotypical, repetitive behaviours in a variety of animals are a result of stress, evidenced by elevated cortisol levels, or whether these behaviours serve as coping mechanisms to reduce stress levels.

Overall Goal

This review aims to explore the relationship between stereotypic behaviours and cortisol levels in animals. The study considers different animal species, aiming to shed light on whether higher cortisol levels, typically a sign of stress, result in stereotypic behaviours, which are repetitive actions with no clear purpose.

Scope of the Review

  • The review analyses a total of 99 studies.
  • It includes a wide array of animal species, such as zoo mammals, horses, and dogs.
  • The research varies in depth and detail.

Findings

  • The research indicates that many studies find a positive correlation between cortisol and stereotypical behaviour. This would suggest that elevated stress levels, indicated by heightened cortisol levels, can result in such repetitive, non-purposeful behaviour.
  • However, more detailed studies hint at these behaviours also acting as coping mechanisms that could potentially reduce cortisol levels. Therefore, stereotypies might not only be a result of stress but also a response to manage and reduce it.
  • Some studies, though, found no correlation or even a negative one between cortisol levels and these behaviours, adding a layer of complexity and creating inconsistencies in the overall picture of the relationship.

Conclusion

  • This review highlights that the relationship between stereotypic behaviours and cortisol levels in animals is complex and requires further investigation due to the inconsistencies found between different studies.
  • To better understand this relationship, it suggests conducting longer-term research and including diverse hormonal markers in the reviews.
  • The conclusion emphasizes the need to study whether stereotypic behaviours only demonstrate chronic stress or they can also show animals’ adaptive responses to stress relief.

Cite This Article

APA
Hildebrand WH, Zaleśny G. (2025). Do stereotypies help or harm? Exploring the link between cortisol level and abnormal behaviours in animals: a review. Front Zool, 22(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12983-025-00576-0

Publication

Frontiers in zoology
ISSN: 1742-9994
NlmUniqueID: 101231669
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 22
Issue: 1
Pages: 20
PII: 20

Researcher Affiliations

Hildebrand, Weronika Helena
  • Institute of Biology, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, 5B Kożuchowska Street, 51-631, Wrocław, Poland. weronika.hildebrand@upwr.edu.pl.
Zaleśny, Grzegorz
  • Institute of Biology, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, 5B Kożuchowska Street, 51-631, Wrocław, Poland.

Conflict of Interest Statement

Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Not applicable. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

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