FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Journal of veterinary internal medicine2015; 29(6); 1676-1682; doi: 10.1111/jvim.13607

Electrophysiologic Study of a Method of Euthanasia Using Intrathecal Lidocaine Hydrochloride Administered during Intravenous Anesthesia in Horses.

Abstract: An intravenous (IV) overdose of pentobarbital sodium is the most commonly used method of euthanasia in veterinary medicine. However, this compound is not available in many countries or rural areas resulting in usage of alternative methods such as intrathecal lidocaine administration after IV anesthesia. Its safety and efficacy as a method of euthanasia have not been investigated in the horse. Objective: To investigate changes in mean arterial blood pressure and electrical activity of the cerebral cortex, brainstem, and heart during intrathecal administration of lidocaine. Our hypothesis was that intrathecal lidocaine affects the cerebral cortex and brainstem before affecting cardiovascular function. Methods: Eleven horses requiring euthanasia for medical reasons. Methods: Prospective observational study. Horses were anesthetized with xylazine, midazolam, and ketamine; and instrumented for recording of electroencephalogram (EEG), electrooculogram (EOG), brainstem auditory evoked response (BAER), and electrocardiogram (ECG). Physical and neurological (brainstem reflexes) variables were monitored. Mean arterial blood pressure was recorded throughout the study. Results: Loss of cerebro-cortical electrical activity occurred up to 226 seconds after the end of the infusion of lidocaine solution. Cessation of brainstem function as evidenced by a lack of brainstem reflexes and disappearance of BAER occurred subsequently. Undetectable heart sounds, nonpalpable arterial pulse, and extremely low mean arterial blood pressure supported cardiac death; a recordable ECG was the last variable to disappear after the infusion (300-1,279 seconds). Conclusions: Intrathecal administration of lidocaine is an effective alternative method of euthanasia in anesthetized horses, during which brain death occurs before cardiac death.
Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc. on behalf of American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2015-08-30 PubMed ID: 26332487PubMed Central: PMC4895652DOI: 10.1111/jvim.13607Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research focuses on exploring intrathecal administration of lidocaine as an alternative method to the commonly used intravenous overdose of pentobarbital sodium for euthanasia in horses. The study sought to measure the changes in mean arterial blood pressure and electrical activity in different parts of the brain and heart during the process, hypothesizing that the drug would first affect the cerebral cortex and brainstem before the cardiovascular function.

Methodology

  • Eleven horses requiring euthanasia due to their medical condition were included in this prospective observational study.
  • The horses were first anesthetized using xylazine, midazolam, and ketamine, after which they were set up for the recording of several physical reactions including a electroencephalogram (EEG), electrooculogram (EOG), brainstem auditory evoked response (BAER), and electrocardiogram (ECG).
  • Physical variables and neurological reactions (i.e., brainstem reflexes) were observed and monitored throughout the experiment.
  • Continuous documentation of the mean arterial blood pressure occurred.

Results

  • The researchers observed the discontinuation of cerebro-cortical electrical activity to occur up to 226 seconds after the end of the lidocaine solution infusion.
  • A follow-up loss of brainstem function was indicated through the absence of brainstem reflexes and disappearance of BAER.
  • The final indications of cardiac death were non-detectable heart sounds, an extremely low mean arterial blood pressure, and nonpalpable arterial pulse.
  • On the other hand, a recordable ECG was the final variable to disappear after the infusion.

Conclusion

  • This study suggests that the intrathecal administration of lidocaine can serve as a successful alternative method for euthanasia in anesthetized horses.
  • Based on the collected data, the method results in brain death prior to cardiac death, supporting the original hypothesis.

Cite This Article

APA
Aleman M, Davis E, Williams DC, Madigan JE, Smith F, Guedes A. (2015). Electrophysiologic Study of a Method of Euthanasia Using Intrathecal Lidocaine Hydrochloride Administered during Intravenous Anesthesia in Horses. J Vet Intern Med, 29(6), 1676-1682. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvim.13607

Publication

Journal of veterinary internal medicine
ISSN: 1939-1676
NlmUniqueID: 8708660
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 29
Issue: 6
Pages: 1676-1682

Researcher Affiliations

Aleman, M
  • Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA.
Davis, E
  • International Animal Welfare Training Institute, University of California, Davis, CA.
Williams, D C
  • The William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, University of California, Davis, CA.
Madigan, J E
  • Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA.
Smith, F
  • The William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, University of California, Davis, CA.
Guedes, A
  • Department of Surgical and Radiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA.

MeSH Terms

  • Anesthesia, Intravenous / veterinary
  • Animals
  • Electrophysiological Phenomena / drug effects
  • Euthanasia, Animal / methods
  • Horses
  • Injections, Spinal
  • Lidocaine / administration & dosage
  • Lidocaine / pharmacology
  • Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel Blockers / administration & dosage
  • Voltage-Gated Sodium Channel Blockers / pharmacology

References

This article includes 23 references
  1. Leary S, Underwood W, Anthony R. AVMA Guidelines for the euthanasia of animals: 2013 Edition.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2013:1–102.
  2. Leary S, Underwood W, Raymond A. AAEP Guidelines for Euthanasia.. Lexington, KY: American Association of Equine Practitioners; 2011.
  3. Aleman M, Williams DC, Guedes A, Madigan JE. Cerebral and brainstem electrophysiologic activity during euthanasia with pentobarbital sodium in horses.. J Vet Intern Med 2015 Mar-Apr;29(2):663-72.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.12570:1-10pmc: PMC4895516pubmed: 25800436google scholar: lookup
  4. Williams DC, Aleman M, Tharp B, Fletcher DJ, Kass PH, Steffey EP, LeCouteur RA, Holliday TA. Qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the electroencephalogram in normal horses after sedation.. J Vet Intern Med 2012 May-Jun;26(3):645-53.
    pubmed: 22489924doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2012.00921.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  5. Aleman M, Puchalski SM, Williams DC, Kass PH, Holliday TA. Brainstem auditory-evoked responses in horses with temporohyoid osteoarthropathy.. J Vet Intern Med 2008 Sep-Oct;22(5):1196-202.
    pubmed: 18681921doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2008.0158.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  6. Mayhew IG. Collection of cerebrospinal fluid from the horse.. Cornell Vet 1975 Oct;65(4):500-11.
    pubmed: 1192748
  7. Pratt S, Vasudevan A, Hess P. A prospective randomized trial of lidocaine 30 mg versus 45 mg for epidural test dose for intrathecal injection in the obstetric population.. Anesth Analg 2013 Jan;116(1):125-32.
    pubmed: 23223105doi: 10.1213/ane.0b013e31826c7ebegoogle scholar: lookup
  8. Zhao G, Ding X, Guo Y, Chen W. Intrathecal lidocaine neurotoxicity: combination with bupivacaine and ropivacaine and effect of nerve growth factor.. Life Sci 2014 Sep 1;112(1-2):10-21.
    pubmed: 25064827doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2014.07.003google scholar: lookup
  9. Tauzin-Fin P, Bernard O, Sesay M, Biais M, Richebe P, Quinart A, Revel P, Sztark F. Benefits of intravenous lidocaine on post-operative pain and acute rehabilitation after laparoscopic nephrectomy.. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol 2014 Jul;30(3):366-72.
    pmc: PMC4152677pubmed: 25190945doi: 10.4103/0970-9185.137269google scholar: lookup
  10. Fikes LW, Lin HC, Thurmon JC. A preliminary comparison of lidocaine and xylazine as epidural analgesics in ponies.. Vet Surg 1989 Jan-Feb;18(1):85-6.
    pubmed: 2929142doi: 10.1111/j.1532-950x.1989.tb01046.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  11. Borowicz KK, Banach M. Antiarrhythmic drugs and epilepsy.. Pharmacol Rep 2014 Aug;66(4):545-51.
    pubmed: 24948053doi: 10.1016/j.pharep.2014.03.009google scholar: lookup
  12. Su Y, Yang Q, Liu G, Zhang Y, Ye H, Gao D, Zhang Y, Chen W. Diagnosis of brain death: confirmatory tests after clinical test.. Chin Med J (Engl) 2014;127(7):1272-7.
    pubmed: 24709179
  13. Monteiro LM, Bollen CW, van Huffelen AC, Ackerstaff RG, Jansen NJ, van Vught AJ. Transcranial Doppler ultrasonography to confirm brain death: a meta-analysis.. Intensive Care Med 2006 Dec;32(12):1937-44.
    pubmed: 17019556doi: 10.1007/s00134-006-0353-9google scholar: lookup
  14. Sloan TB. Anesthetic effects on electrophysiologic recordings.. J Clin Neurophysiol 1998 May;15(3):217-26.
    pubmed: 9681559doi: 10.1097/00004691-199805000-00005google scholar: lookup
  15. Spehlmann R. The normal BAEP. Evoked Potential Primer Stoneham, MA: Butterworth Publishers; 1985:204–216.
  16. Spehlmann R. Coma. Evoked Potential Primer Stoneham, MA: Butterworth Publishers; 1985:217–235.
  17. Aleman M, Holliday TA, Nieto JE, Williams DC. Brainstem auditory evoked responses in an equine patient population: part I--adult horses.. J Vet Intern Med 2014 Jul-Aug;28(4):1310-7.
    pmc: PMC4857955pubmed: 24902479doi: 10.1111/jvim.12379google scholar: lookup
  18. Aleman M, Madigan JE, Williams DC, Holliday TA. Brainstem auditory evoked responses in an equine patient population. Part II: foals.. J Vet Intern Med 2014 Jul-Aug;28(4):1318-24.
    pmc: PMC4857935pubmed: 24903742doi: 10.1111/jvim.12377google scholar: lookup
  19. Stockard JJ, Stockard JE, Sharbrough FW. Nonpathological factors influencing brainstem auditory evoked potentials.. Am J EEG Technol 1978;18:177.
  20. Bobbin RP, May JG, Lemoine RL. Effects of pentobaribtal and ketamine on brain stem auditory potentials. Latency and amplitude intensity functions after intraperitoneal administration.. Arch Otolaryngol 1979 Aug;105(8):467-70.
    pubmed: 464884doi: 10.1001/archotol.1979.00790200029006google scholar: lookup
  21. Sutton LN, Frewen T, Marsh R, Jaggi J, Bruce DA. The effects of deep barbiturate coma on multimodality evoked potentials.. J Neurosurg 1982 Aug;57(2):178-85.
    pubmed: 7086510doi: 10.3171/jns.1982.57.2.0178google scholar: lookup
  22. Marsh RR, Frewen TC, Sutton LN, Potsic WP. Resistance of the auditory brain stem response to high barbiturate levels.. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1984 Dec;92(6):685-8.
    pubmed: 6440088doi: 10.1177/019459988409200616google scholar: lookup
  23. Stockard JJ, Sharbrough FW, Tinker JA. Effects of hypothermia on the human brainstem auditory response.. Ann Neurol 1978 Apr;3(4):368-70.
    pubmed: 666280doi: 10.1002/ana.410030416google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 6 times.
  1. Cooney K, Titcombe L. Lessons and Recommendations from a Pentobarbital Shortage: US and Canada 2021. Animals (Basel) 2022 Feb 2;12(3).
    doi: 10.3390/ani12030365pubmed: 35158688google scholar: lookup
  2. DeNicola AJ, Miller DS, DeNicola VL, Meyer RE, Gambino JM. Assessment of humaneness using gunshot targeting the brain and cervical spine for cervid depopulation under field conditions. PLoS One 2019;14(2):e0213200.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0213200pubmed: 30818392google scholar: lookup
  3. Aleman M, Finno CJ, Weich K, Penedo MCT. Investigation of Known Genetic Mutations of Arabian Horses in Egyptian Arabian Foals with Juvenile Idiopathic Epilepsy. J Vet Intern Med 2018 Jan;32(1):465-468.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.14873pubmed: 29171123google scholar: lookup
  4. Aleman M, Davis E, Knych H, Guedes A, Smith F, Madigan JE. Drug Residues after Intravenous Anesthesia and Intrathecal Lidocaine Hydrochloride Euthanasia in Horses. J Vet Intern Med 2016 Jul;30(4):1322-6.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.14372pubmed: 27362367google scholar: lookup
  5. Austin MMP, Ivey JLZ, Shepherd EA, Myer PR. Methodologies to Identify Metabolic Pathway Differences Between Emaciated and Moderately Conditioned Horses: A Review of Multiple Gene Expression Techniques. Animals (Basel) 2025 Oct 10;15(20).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15202933pubmed: 41153862google scholar: lookup
  6. Willette M, Rosenhagen N, Buhl G, Innis C, Boehm J. Interrupted Lives: Welfare Considerations in Wildlife Rehabilitation. Animals (Basel) 2023 Jun 1;13(11).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13111836pubmed: 37889738google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,780 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.