FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Journal of virology2001; 75(10); 4570-4583; doi: 10.1128/JVI.75.10.4570-4583.2001

Equine infectious anemia virus genomic evolution in progressor and nonprogressor ponies.

Abstract: A primary mechanism of lentivirus persistence is the ability of these viruses to evolve in response to biological and immunological selective pressures with a remarkable array of genetic and antigenic variations that constitute a perpetual natural experiment in genetic engineering. A widely accepted paradigm of lentivirus evolution is that the rate of genetic variation is correlated directly with the levels of virus replication: the greater the viral replication, the more opportunities that exist for genetic modifications and selection of viral variants. To test this hypothesis directly, we examined the patterns of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) envelope variation during a 2.5-year period in experimentally infected ponies that differed markedly in clinical progression and in steady-state levels of viral replication as indicated by plasma virus genomic RNA assays. The results of these comprehensive studies revealed for the first time similar extents of envelope gp90 variation in persistently infected ponies regardless of the number of disease cycles (one to six) and viremia during chronic disease. The extent of envelope variation was also independent of the apparent steady-state levels of virus replication during long-term asymptomatic infection, varying from undetectable to 10(5) genomic RNA copies per ml of plasma. In addition, the data confirmed the evolution of distinct virus populations (genomic quasispecies) associated with sequential febrile episodes during acute and chronic EIA and demonstrated for the first time ongoing envelope variation during long-term asymptomatic infections. Finally, comparison of the rates of evolution of the previously defined EIAV gp90 variable domains demonstrated distinct differences in the rates of nucleotide and amino acid sequence variation, presumably reflecting differences in the ability of different envelope domains to respond to immune or other biological selection pressures. Thus, these data suggest that EIAV variation can be associated predominantly with ongoing low levels of virus replication and selection in target tissues, even in the absence of substantial levels of plasma viremia, and that envelope variation continues during all stages of persistent infection as the virus successfully avoids clearance by host defense mechanisms.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2001-04-20 PubMed ID: 11312327PubMed Central: PMC114210DOI: 10.1128/JVI.75.10.4570-4583.2001Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't
  • Research Support
  • U.S. Gov't
  • P.H.S.

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The study examines the evolution of the equine infectious ania virus (EIAV) in ponies. The research focused on the correlation between the rate of genetic variation and the level of virus replication, and found that viral variation can occur irrespective of the number of disease cycles and viral replication levels.

Investigating Virus Evolution

  • The research involved studying the patterns of EIAV envelope variation in experimentally infected ponies over a period of 2.5 years.
  • The ponies chosen had significant differences in their clinical progression and levels of viral replication.

Findings on EIAV Envelope Variation

  • The study found that similar extents of envelope gp90 variation occurred in infected ponies regardless of the number of disease cycles (one to six) and viremia during chronic disease.
  • In addition, there seemed to be no relation between the extent of envelope variation and the steady-state levels of virus replication during long-term asymptomatic infection.

Recognizing Distinct Virus Populations and Envelope Variation

  • Through the study, distinct virus populations (genomic quasispecies) related to sequential febrile episodes during acute and chronic EIA were identified.
  • Ongoing envelope variation was found to occur even during long-term asymptomatic infections.

Comparing Rates of Evolution

  • When comparing the rates of evolution of the previously defined EIAV gp90 variable domains, the research revealed clear differences in the rates of nucleotide and amino acid sequence variation.
  • This possibly indicates the different capabilities of different envelope domains to respond to immune or other biological selection pressures.

Implications of the Study

  • From these findings, the study suggests that EIAV variation can occur predominantly with ongoing low levels of virus replication and selection, even when there are no large levels of plasma viremia.
  • Moreover, envelope variation is continued throughout the stages of persistent infection, which allows the virus to successfully evade clearance by the host’s defense mechanisms.

Cite This Article

APA
Leroux C, Craigo JK, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. (2001). Equine infectious anemia virus genomic evolution in progressor and nonprogressor ponies. J Virol, 75(10), 4570-4583. https://doi.org/10.1128/JVI.75.10.4570-4583.2001

Publication

Journal of virology
ISSN: 0022-538X
NlmUniqueID: 0113724
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 75
Issue: 10
Pages: 4570-4583

Researcher Affiliations

Leroux, C
  • Department of Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15261, USA.
Craigo, J K
    Issel, C J
      Montelaro, R C

        MeSH Terms

        • Acute Disease
        • Amino Acid Sequence
        • Animals
        • Base Sequence
        • Chronic Disease
        • DNA, Viral
        • Disease Progression
        • Equine Infectious Anemia / physiopathology
        • Equine Infectious Anemia / virology
        • Evolution, Molecular
        • Genetic Variation
        • Genome, Viral
        • Glycoproteins / classification
        • Glycoproteins / genetics
        • Horses
        • Infectious Anemia Virus, Equine / classification
        • Infectious Anemia Virus, Equine / genetics
        • Molecular Sequence Data
        • Phylogeny
        • Sequence Homology, Amino Acid
        • Time Factors
        • Viral Envelope Proteins / classification
        • Viral Envelope Proteins / genetics
        • Viremia / virology

        Grant Funding

        • P41 RR006009 / NCRR NIH HHS
        • R01 AI025850 / NIAID NIH HHS
        • 2 P41 RR06009 / NCRR NIH HHS
        • R01 AI25850 / NIAID NIH HHS

        References

        This article includes 34 references
        1. Bakhanashvili M, Hizi A. Fidelity of DNA synthesis exhibited in vitro by the reverse transcriptase of the lentivirus equine infectious anemia virus.. Biochemistry 1993 Jul 27;32(29):7559-67.
          pubmed: 7687876doi: 10.1021/bi00080a030google scholar: lookup
        2. Ball JM, Rushlow KE, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Detailed mapping of the antigenicity of the surface unit glycoprotein of equine infectious anemia virus by using synthetic peptide strategies.. J Virol 1992 Feb;66(2):732-42.
          pmc: PMC240772pubmed: 1370556doi: 10.1128/jvi.66.2.732-742.1992google scholar: lookup
        3. Burns DP, Desrosiers RC. Envelope sequence variation, neutralizing antibodies, and primate lentivirus persistence.. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 1994;188:185-219.
          pubmed: 7523031doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-78536-8_11google scholar: lookup
        4. Chackerian B, Rudensey LM, Overbaugh J. Specific N-linked and O-linked glycosylation modifications in the envelope V1 domain of simian immunodeficiency virus variants that evolve in the host alter recognition by neutralizing antibodies.. J Virol 1997 Oct;71(10):7719-27.
          pmc: PMC192123pubmed: 9311856doi: 10.1128/jvi.71.10.7719-7727.1997google scholar: lookup
        5. Cheng-Mayer C, Brown A, Harouse J, Luciw PA, Mayer AJ. Selection for neutralization resistance of the simian/human immunodeficiency virus SHIVSF33A variant in vivo by virtue of sequence changes in the extracellular envelope glycoprotein that modify N-linked glycosylation.. J Virol 1999 Jul;73(7):5294-300.
          pmc: PMC112584pubmed: 10364275doi: 10.1128/jvi.73.7.5294-5300.1999google scholar: lookup
        6. Coffin JM. HIV population dynamics in vivo: implications for genetic variation, pathogenesis, and therapy.. Science 1995 Jan 27;267(5197):483-9.
          pubmed: 7824947doi: 10.1126/science.7824947google scholar: lookup
        7. Cunningham TP, Montelaro RC, Rushlow KE. Lentivirus envelope sequences and proviral genomes are stabilized in Escherichia coli when cloned in low-copy-number plasmid vectors.. Gene 1993 Feb 14;124(1):93-8.
          pubmed: 8382658doi: 10.1016/0378-1119(93)90766-vgoogle scholar: lookup
        8. Greene WK, Meers J, del Fierro G, Carnegie PR, Robinson WF. Extensive sequence variation of feline immunodeficiency virus env genes in isolates from naturally infected cats.. Arch Virol 1993;133(1-2):51-62.
          pubmed: 8240017doi: 10.1007/bf01309743google scholar: lookup
        9. Group G C. Program manual for the Wisconsin Package. Madison, Wis: Genetics Computer Group; 1994.
        10. Hammond SA, Cook SJ, Lichtenstein DL, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Maturation of the cellular and humoral immune responses to persistent infection in horses by equine infectious anemia virus is a complex and lengthy process.. J Virol 1997 May;71(5):3840-52.
          pmc: PMC191535pubmed: 9094660doi: 10.1128/jvi.71.5.3840-3852.1997google scholar: lookup
        11. Hammond SA, Li F, McKeon BM Sr, Cook SJ, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Immune responses and viral replication in long-term inapparent carrier ponies inoculated with equine infectious anemia virus.. J Virol 2000 Jul;74(13):5968-81.
          pmc: PMC112093pubmed: 10846078doi: 10.1128/jvi.74.13.5968-5981.2000google scholar: lookup
        12. Harrold SM, Cook SJ, Cook RF, Rushlow KE, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Tissue sites of persistent infection and active replication of equine infectious anemia virus during acute disease and asymptomatic infection in experimentally infected equids.. J Virol 2000 Apr;74(7):3112-21.
          pmc: PMC111810pubmed: 10708426doi: 10.1128/jvi.74.7.3112-3121.2000google scholar: lookup
        13. Kim CH, Casey JW. In vivo replicative status and envelope heterogeneity of equine infectious anemia virus in an inapparent carrier.. J Virol 1994 Apr;68(4):2777-80.
          pmc: PMC236760pubmed: 8139056doi: 10.1128/jvi.68.4.2777-2780.1994google scholar: lookup
        14. Kliks S, Contag CH, Corliss H, Learn G, Rodrigo A, Wara D, Mullins JI, Levy JA. Genetic analysis of viral variants selected in transmission of human immunodeficiency viruses to newborns.. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2000 Sep 1;16(13):1223-33.
          pubmed: 10957720doi: 10.1089/08892220050116998google scholar: lookup
        15. Leroux C, Chastang J, Greenland T, Mornex JF. Genomic heterogeneity of small ruminant lentiviruses: existence of heterogeneous populations in sheep and of the same lentiviral genotypes in sheep and goats.. Arch Virol 1997;142(6):1125-37.
          pubmed: 9229003doi: 10.1007/s007050050147google scholar: lookup
        16. Leroux C, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Novel and dynamic evolution of equine infectious anemia virus genomic quasispecies associated with sequential disease cycles in an experimentally infected pony.. J Virol 1997 Dec;71(12):9627-39.
          pmc: PMC230271pubmed: 9371627doi: 10.1128/jvi.71.12.9627-9639.1997google scholar: lookup
        17. Lichtenstein DL, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Genomic quasispecies associated with the initiation of infection and disease in ponies experimentally infected with equine infectious anemia virus.. J Virol 1996 Jun;70(6):3346-54.
          pmc: PMC190205pubmed: 8648664doi: 10.1128/jvi.70.6.3346-3354.1996google scholar: lookup
        18. Ly A, Stamatatos L. V2 loop glycosylation of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 SF162 envelope facilitates interaction of this protein with CD4 and CCR5 receptors and protects the virus from neutralization by anti-V3 loop and anti-CD4 binding site antibodies.. J Virol 2000 Aug;74(15):6769-76.
          pmc: PMC112193pubmed: 10888615doi: 10.1128/jvi.74.15.6769-6776.2000google scholar: lookup
        19. Montelaro RC, Ball JM, Rushlow KE. Equine retroviruses. The retroviridae Vol. 2. New York, N.Y: Plenum Press; 1993. pp. 257–360.
        20. Oaks JL, Ulibarri C, Crawford TB. Endothelial cell infection in vivo by equine infectious anaemia virus.. J Gen Virol 1999 Sep;80 ( Pt 9):2393-2397.
          pubmed: 10501492doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-80-9-2393google scholar: lookup
        21. Payne SL, Fang FD, Liu CP, Dhruva BR, Rwambo P, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Antigenic variation and lentivirus persistence: variations in envelope gene sequences during EIAV infection resemble changes reported for sequential isolates of HIV.. Virology 1987 Dec;161(2):321-31.
          pubmed: 2825406doi: 10.1016/0042-6822(87)90124-3google scholar: lookup
        22. Payne SL, Salinovich O, Nauman SM, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Course and extent of variation of equine infectious anemia virus during parallel persistent infections.. J Virol 1987 Apr;61(4):1266-70.
          pmc: PMC254092pubmed: 3029423doi: 10.1128/jvi.61.4.1266-1270.1987google scholar: lookup
        23. Preston BD, Poiesz BJ, Loeb LA. Fidelity of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase.. Science 1988 Nov 25;242(4882):1168-71.
          pubmed: 2460924doi: 10.1126/science.2460924google scholar: lookup
        24. Raabe MR, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Equine monocyte-derived macrophage cultures and their applications for infectivity and neutralization studies of equine infectious anemia virus.. J Virol Methods 1998 Mar;71(1):87-104.
          pubmed: 9628225doi: 10.1016/s0166-0934(97)00204-8google scholar: lookup
        25. Reitter JN, Means RE, Desrosiers RC. A role for carbohydrates in immune evasion in AIDS.. Nat Med 1998 Jun;4(6):679-84.
          pubmed: 9623976doi: 10.1038/nm0698-679google scholar: lookup
        26. Roberts JD, Bebenek K, Kunkel TA. The accuracy of reverse transcriptase from HIV-1.. Science 1988 Nov 25;242(4882):1171-3.
          pubmed: 2460925doi: 10.1126/science.2460925google scholar: lookup
        27. Sambrook JE, Fritsch EF, Maniatis T. Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual. 2nd ed. Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 1989.
        28. Simmonds P, Balfe P, Ludlam CA, Bishop JO, Brown AJ. Analysis of sequence diversity in hypervariable regions of the external glycoprotein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1.. J Virol 1990 Dec;64(12):5840-50.
          pmc: PMC248744pubmed: 2243378doi: 10.1128/jvi.64.12.5840-5850.1990google scholar: lookup
        29. Starcich BR, Hahn BH, Shaw GM, McNeely PD, Modrow S, Wolf H, Parks ES, Parks WP, Josephs SF, Gallo RC. Identification and characterization of conserved and variable regions in the envelope gene of HTLV-III/LAV, the retrovirus of AIDS.. Cell 1986 Jun 6;45(5):637-48.
          pubmed: 2423250doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(86)90778-6google scholar: lookup
        30. Suarez DL, Whetstone CA. Identification of hypervariable and conserved regions in the surface envelope gene in the bovine lentivirus.. Virology 1995 Oct 1;212(2):728-33.
          pubmed: 7571444doi: 10.1006/viro.1995.1532google scholar: lookup
        31. Wang SZ, Rushlow KE, Issel CJ, Cook RF, Cook SJ, Raabe ML, Chong YH, Costa L, Montelaro RC. Enhancement of EIAV replication and disease by immunization with a baculovirus-expressed recombinant envelope surface glycoprotein.. Virology 1994 Feb 15;199(1):247-51.
          pubmed: 8116252doi: 10.1006/viro.1994.1120google scholar: lookup
        32. Yang Z, Nielsen R, Goldman N, Pedersen AM. Codon-substitution models for heterogeneous selection pressure at amino acid sites.. Genetics 2000 May;155(1):431-49.
          pmc: PMC1461088pubmed: 10790415doi: 10.1093/genetics/155.1.431google scholar: lookup
        33. Zheng YH, Nakaya T, Sentsui H, Kameoka M, Kishi M, Hagiwara K, Takahashi H, Kono Y, Ikuta K. Insertions, duplications and substitutions in restricted gp90 regions of equine infectious anaemia virus during febrile episodes in an experimentally infected horse.. J Gen Virol 1997 Apr;78 ( Pt 4):807-20.
          pubmed: 9129653doi: 10.1099/0022-1317-78-4-807google scholar: lookup
        34. Zheng YH, Sentsui H, Nakaya T, Kono Y, Ikuta K. In vivo dynamics of equine infectious anemia viruses emerging during febrile episodes: insertions/duplications at the principal neutralizing domain.. J Virol 1997 Jul;71(7):5031-9.
          pmc: PMC191736pubmed: 9188568doi: 10.1128/jvi.71.7.5031-5039.1997google scholar: lookup

        Citations

        This article has been cited 28 times.
        1. Malossi CD, Fioratti EG, Cardoso JF, Magro AJ, Kroon EG, Aguiar DM, Borges AMCM, Nogueira MF, Ullmann LS, Araujo JP Jr. High Genomic Variability in Equine Infectious Anemia Virus Obtained from Naturally Infected Horses in Pantanal, Brazil: An Endemic Region Case. Viruses 2020 Feb 12;12(2).
          doi: 10.3390/v12020207pubmed: 32059508google scholar: lookup
        2. Wang HN, Rao D, Fu XQ, Hu MM, Dong JG. Equine infectious anemia virus in China. Oncotarget 2018 Jan 2;9(1):1356-1364.
          doi: 10.18632/oncotarget.20381pubmed: 29416700google scholar: lookup
        3. Han X, Zhang P, Yu W, Xiang W, Li X. Amino acid mutations in the env gp90 protein that modify N-linked glycosylation of the Chinese EIAV vaccine strain enhance resistance to neutralizing antibodies. Virus Genes 2016 Dec;52(6):814-822.
          doi: 10.1007/s11262-016-1382-2pubmed: 27572122google scholar: lookup
        4. Cervantes DT, Ball JM, Edwards J, Payne S. Horses naturally infected with EIAV harbor 2 distinct SU populations but are monophyletic with respect to IN. Virus Genes 2016 Feb;52(1):71-80.
          doi: 10.1007/s11262-015-1280-zpubmed: 26739458google scholar: lookup
        5. Schwartz EJ, Nanda S, Mealey RH. Antibody escape kinetics of equine infectious anemia virus infection of horses. J Virol 2015 Jul;89(13):6945-51.
          doi: 10.1128/JVI.00137-15pubmed: 25878104google scholar: lookup
        6. Craigo JK, Ezzelarab C, Cook SJ, Liu C, Horohov D, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Protective efficacy of centralized and polyvalent envelope immunogens in an attenuated equine lentivirus vaccine. PLoS Pathog 2015 Jan;11(1):e1004610.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004610pubmed: 25569288google scholar: lookup
        7. Qian L, Han X, Liu X. Structural insight into equine lentivirus receptor 1. Protein Sci 2015 May;24(5):633-42.
          doi: 10.1002/pro.2634pubmed: 25559821google scholar: lookup
        8. Liu C, Cook SJ, Craigo JK, Cook FR, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC, Horohov DW. Epitope shifting of gp90-specific cellular immune responses in EIAV-infected ponies. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2014 Oct 15;161(3-4):161-9.
          doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2014.08.001pubmed: 25176006google scholar: lookup
        9. Craigo JK, Montelaro RC. Lessons in AIDS vaccine development learned from studies of equine infectious, anemia virus infection and immunity. Viruses 2013 Dec 2;5(12):2963-76.
          doi: 10.3390/v5122963pubmed: 24316675google scholar: lookup
        10. Yin X, Hu Z, Gu Q, Wu X, Zheng YH, Wei P, Wang X. Equine tetherin blocks retrovirus release and its activity is antagonized by equine infectious anemia virus envelope protein. J Virol 2014 Jan;88(2):1259-70.
          doi: 10.1128/JVI.03148-13pubmed: 24227834google scholar: lookup
        11. Craigo JK, Ezzelarab C, Cook SJ, Chong L, Horohov D, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Envelope determinants of equine lentiviral vaccine protection. PLoS One 2013;8(6):e66093.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0066093pubmed: 23785473google scholar: lookup
        12. Wang X, Wang S, Lin Y, Jiang C, Ma J, Zhao L, Lv X, Wang F, Shen R, Zhou J. Unique evolution characteristics of the envelope protein of EIAV(LN₄₀), a virulent strain of equine infectious anemia virus. Virus Genes 2011 Apr;42(2):220-8.
          doi: 10.1007/s11262-010-0563-7pubmed: 21369830google scholar: lookup
        13. Cappelli K, Capomaccio S, Cook FR, Felicetti M, Marenzoni ML, Coppola G, Verini-Supplizi A, Coletti M, Passamonti F. Molecular detection, epidemiology, and genetic characterization of novel European field isolates of equine infectious anemia virus. J Clin Microbiol 2011 Jan;49(1):27-33.
          doi: 10.1128/JCM.01311-10pubmed: 21084503google scholar: lookup
        14. Craigo JK, Barnes S, Cook SJ, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Divergence, not diversity of an attenuated equine lentivirus vaccine strain correlates with protection from disease. Vaccine 2010 Nov 29;28(51):8095-104.
          doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.10.003pubmed: 20955830google scholar: lookup
        15. Taylor SD, Leib SR, Carpenter S, Mealey RH. Selection of a rare neutralization-resistant variant following passive transfer of convalescent immune plasma in equine infectious anemia virus-challenged SCID horses. J Virol 2010 Jul;84(13):6536-48.
          doi: 10.1128/JVI.00218-10pubmed: 20392850google scholar: lookup
        16. Craigo JK, Barnes S, Zhang B, Cook SJ, Howe L, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. An EIAV field isolate reveals much higher levels of subtype variability than currently reported for the equine lentivirus family. Retrovirology 2009 Oct 20;6:95.
          doi: 10.1186/1742-4690-6-95pubmed: 19843328google scholar: lookup
        17. Zielonka J, Bravo IG, Marino D, Conrad E, Perković M, Battenberg M, Cichutek K, Münk C. Restriction of equine infectious anemia virus by equine APOBEC3 cytidine deaminases. J Virol 2009 Aug;83(15):7547-59.
          doi: 10.1128/JVI.00015-09pubmed: 19458006google scholar: lookup
        18. Mealey RH, Leib SR, Littke MH, Wagner B, Horohov DW, McGuire TC. Viral load and clinical disease enhancement associated with a lentivirus cytotoxic T lymphocyte vaccine regimen. Vaccine 2009 Apr 21;27(18):2453-68.
          doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.02.048pubmed: 19368787google scholar: lookup
        19. Jorba J, Campagnoli R, De L, Kew O. Calibration of multiple poliovirus molecular clocks covering an extended evolutionary range. J Virol 2008 May;82(9):4429-40.
          doi: 10.1128/JVI.02354-07pubmed: 18287242google scholar: lookup
        20. Tagmyer TL, Craigo JK, Cook SJ, Even DL, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Envelope determinants of equine infectious anemia virus vaccine protection and the effects of sequence variation on immune recognition. J Virol 2008 Apr;82(8):4052-63.
          doi: 10.1128/JVI.02028-07pubmed: 18234792google scholar: lookup
        21. Craigo JK, Zhang B, Barnes S, Tagmyer TL, Cook SJ, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Envelope variation as a primary determinant of lentiviral vaccine efficacy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007 Sep 18;104(38):15105-10.
          doi: 10.1073/pnas.0706449104pubmed: 17846425google scholar: lookup
        22. Boissin-Quillon A, Piau D, Leroux C. In silico segmentations of lentivirus envelope sequences. BMC Bioinformatics 2007 Mar 21;8:99.
          doi: 10.1186/1471-2105-8-99pubmed: 17376229google scholar: lookup
        23. Payne SL, Pei XF, Jia B, Fagerness A, Fuller FJ. Influence of long terminal repeat and env on the virulence phenotype of equine infectious anemia virus. J Virol 2004 Mar;78(5):2478-85.
          doi: 10.1128/jvi.78.5.2478-2485.2004pubmed: 14963146google scholar: lookup
        24. Baccam P, Thompson RJ, Li Y, Sparks WO, Belshan M, Dorman KS, Wannemuehler Y, Oaks JL, Cornette JL, Carpenter S. Subpopulations of equine infectious anemia virus Rev coexist in vivo and differ in phenotype. J Virol 2003 Nov;77(22):12122-31.
          doi: 10.1128/jvi.77.22.12122-12131.2003pubmed: 14581549google scholar: lookup
        25. Mealey RH, Zhang B, Leib SR, Littke MH, McGuire TC. Epitope specificity is critical for high and moderate avidity cytotoxic T lymphocytes associated with control of viral load and clinical disease in horses with equine infectious anemia virus. Virology 2003 Sep 1;313(2):537-52.
          doi: 10.1016/s0042-6822(03)00344-1pubmed: 12954220google scholar: lookup
        26. Li F, Craigo JK, Howe L, Steckbeck JD, Cook S, Issel C, Montelaro RC. A live attenuated equine infectious anemia virus proviral vaccine with a modified S2 gene provides protection from detectable infection by intravenous virulent virus challenge of experimentally inoculated horses. J Virol 2003 Jul;77(13):7244-53.
          doi: 10.1128/jvi.77.13.7244-7253.2003pubmed: 12805423google scholar: lookup
        27. Howe L, Leroux C, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC. Equine infectious anemia virus envelope evolution in vivo during persistent infection progressively increases resistance to in vitro serum antibody neutralization as a dominant phenotype. J Virol 2002 Nov;76(21):10588-97.
          doi: 10.1128/jvi.76.21.10588-10597.2002pubmed: 12368301google scholar: lookup
        28. Wang J, Qiu J, Wang M, Wu X, Li X, Zhang H. Development of a colloidal gold immunochromatographic strip to detect equine infectious anemia virus. Virol J 2025 Jun 24;22(1):205.
          doi: 10.1186/s12985-025-02815-6pubmed: 40555999google scholar: lookup
        Subscribe to our newsletter
        Join 99,727 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.