FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Current opinion in infectious diseases2007; 20(3); 293-297; doi: 10.1097/QCO.0b013e32816b5cad

Experimental infections with West Nile virus.

Abstract: West Nile virus emerged recently in North America as a serious human and animal pathogen. This review summarizes the use of experimental infections with West Nile virus in diverse vertebrate species that have been used to answer fundamental questions about the host response, pathogenesis of West Nile virus infection and virus evolution. Results: West Nile virus has an extremely broad vertebrate host range. Infection of common species of birds has defined those with high vs. low potential to serve as amplifying hosts for the virus. In general, mammals (primates, horses, companion animals) are dead-end hosts for West Nile virus, although some circumstances (i.e. immunosuppression) may allow individuals to become capable of transmitting the virus to mosquitoes. Some mammals (rodents, rabbits, squirrels) and reptiles (alligators) have been found to develop a viremia of sufficient magnitude to predict at least low competence for infecting feeding mosquitoes. Finally, experimental infection of rodents, horses and primates with West Nile virus has been integral to developing and evaluating the efficacy of West Nile virus vaccines. Conclusions: Experimental infection with West Nile virus has assisted in delineating those hosts important and not important to the transmission cycle, in understanding how the virus induces disease in susceptible hosts, and in validating the efficacy of vaccines used for control of disease.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2007-05-02 PubMed ID: 17471040DOI: 10.1097/QCO.0b013e32816b5cadGoogle Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article focuses on the understanding of West Nile virus’ host response, its pathogenesis, and virus evolution through experimental infections across different vertebrate species. It underscores the wide-ranging vertebrate host range of the virus, its impact varying from high to low potential on various bird species and the role of certain mammals as dead-end hosts. The study also highlights the effectiveness of West Nile virus vaccines through experimental infections on rodents, horses, and primates.

Experimental Infection: Hosts and Pathogens

  • The research explores how West Nile virus affects different hosts – birds, mammals (primates, horses, pets), rodents, rabbits, squirrels, and reptiles.
  • The virus’s impact on commonly found birds helped in identifying those species with high or low potential as amplifying hosts, which serve to increase the amount of virus in the environment.
  • The researchers discovered that while mammals usually end up as dead-end hosts (incapable of further transmitting the virus), under some conditions such as immunosuppression they might become capable of transmitting the virus to mosquitos.

Capability of Transmitting Virus to Mosquitoes

  • Some mammalian species such as rodents, rabbits, squirrels, and reptiles (alligators) were observed to develop a viremia (the presence of viruses in the blood) of sufficient degree to predict a low competence for infecting feeding mosquitoes.
  • This prediction implies a potential risk of these animals serving as a source of virus for mosquitoes, which can subsequently transmit the virus to other hosts.

Efficacy of West Nile Virus Vaccines

  • The study conducted experimental infections on rodents, horses, and primates to evaluate the efficacy of West Nile virus vaccines.
  • These trials are crucial for developing effective vaccines for disease control and understanding how different species respond to the virus and the vaccine.

Study Conclusion

  • The work done via experimental infection with West Nile virus aids in pinpointing crucial hosts in the transmission cycle and understanding how the virus causes disease in susceptible hosts.
  • The research validates the efficacy of vaccines used for controlling the disease.
  • Therefore, the findings of the research are of significant value for public health in areas where West Nile virus is a concern.

Cite This Article

APA
Bowen RA, Nemeth NM. (2007). Experimental infections with West Nile virus. Curr Opin Infect Dis, 20(3), 293-297. https://doi.org/10.1097/QCO.0b013e32816b5cad

Publication

Current opinion in infectious diseases
ISSN: 0951-7375
NlmUniqueID: 8809878
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 20
Issue: 3
Pages: 293-297

Researcher Affiliations

Bowen, Richard A
  • Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523, USA. rbowen@colostate.edu
Nemeth, Nicole M

    MeSH Terms

    • Animals
    • Animals, Domestic / virology
    • Birds / virology
    • Culicidae
    • Disease Models, Animal
    • Disease Reservoirs / virology
    • North America
    • Vaccines / immunology
    • Viremia
    • West Nile Fever / blood
    • West Nile Fever / immunology
    • West Nile Fever / transmission
    • West Nile virus / immunology
    • West Nile virus / pathogenicity

    Citations

    This article has been cited 55 times.
    1. Pervanidou D, Kefaloudi CN, Vakali A, Tsakalidou O, Karatheodorou M, Tsioka K, Evangelidou M, Mellou K, Pappa S, Stoikou K, Bakaloudi V, Koliopoulos G, Stamoulis K, Patsoula E, Politis C, Hadjichristodoulou C, Papa A. The 2022 West Nile Virus Season in Greece; A Quite Intense Season. Viruses 2023 Jun 29;15(7).
      doi: 10.3390/v15071481pubmed: 37515168google scholar: lookup
    2. Karim SU, Bai F. Introduction to West Nile Virus. Methods Mol Biol 2023;2585:1-7.
      doi: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2760-0_1pubmed: 36331759google scholar: lookup
    3. Sofia M, Giannakopoulos A, Giantsis IA, Touloudi A, Birtsas P, Papageorgiou K, Athanasakopoulou Z, Chatzopoulos DC, Vrioni G, Galamatis D, Diamantopoulos V, Mpellou S, Petridou E, Kritas SK, Palli M, Georgakopoulos G, Spyrou V, Tsakris A, Chaskopoulou A, Billinis C. West Nile Virus Occurrence and Ecological Niche Modeling in Wild Bird Species and Mosquito Vectors: An Active Surveillance Program in the Peloponnese Region of Greece. Microorganisms 2022 Jun 30;10(7).
      doi: 10.3390/microorganisms10071328pubmed: 35889046google scholar: lookup
    4. Mancuso E, Cecere JG, Iapaolo F, Di Gennaro A, Sacchi M, Savini G, Spina F, Monaco F. West Nile and Usutu Virus Introduction via Migratory Birds: A Retrospective Analysis in Italy. Viruses 2022 Feb 17;14(2).
      doi: 10.3390/v14020416pubmed: 35216009google scholar: lookup
    5. Kampen H, Tews BA, Werner D. First Evidence of West Nile Virus Overwintering in Mosquitoes in Germany. Viruses 2021 Dec 9;13(12).
      doi: 10.3390/v13122463pubmed: 34960732google scholar: lookup
    6. Young JJ, Haussig JM, Aberle SW, Pervanidou D, Riccardo F, Sekulić N, Bakonyi T, Gossner CM. Epidemiology of human West Nile virus infections in the European Union and European Union enlargement countries, 2010 to 2018. Euro Surveill 2021 May;26(19).
      doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2021.26.19.2001095pubmed: 33988124google scholar: lookup
    7. Dellicour S, Lequime S, Vrancken B, Gill MS, Bastide P, Gangavarapu K, Matteson NL, Tan Y, du Plessis L, Fisher AA, Nelson MI, Gilbert M, Suchard MA, Andersen KG, Grubaugh ND, Pybus OG, Lemey P. Epidemiological hypothesis testing using a phylogeographic and phylodynamic framework. Nat Commun 2020 Nov 6;11(1):5620.
      doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-19122-zpubmed: 33159066google scholar: lookup
    8. Uelmen JA, Irwin P, Bartlett D, Brown W, Karki S, Ruiz MO, Fraterrigo J, Li B, Smith RL. Effects of Scale on Modeling West Nile Virus Disease Risk. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2021 Jan;104(1):151-165.
      doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.20-0416pubmed: 33146116google scholar: lookup
    9. Pervanidou D, Vakali A, Georgakopoulou T, Panagiotopoulos T, Patsoula E, Koliopoulos G, Politis C, Stamoulis K, Gavana E, Pappa S, Mavrouli M, Emmanouil M, Sourvinos G, Mentis A, Tsakris A, Hadjichristodoulou C, Tsiodras S, Papa A. West Nile virus in humans, Greece, 2018: the largest seasonal number of cases, 9 years after its emergence in the country. Euro Surveill 2020 Aug;25(32).
      doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2020.25.32.1900543pubmed: 32794446google scholar: lookup
    10. Sanz G, De Jesus Rodriguez E, Vila-Delgado M, Oliver AL. An unusual case of unilateral chorioretinitis and blind spot enlargement associated with asymptomatic West Nile virus infection. Am J Ophthalmol Case Rep 2020 Jun;18:100723.
      doi: 10.1016/j.ajoc.2020.100723pubmed: 32373759google scholar: lookup
    11. Petruccelli A, Zottola T, Ferrara G, Iovane V, Di Russo C, Pagnini U, Montagnaro S. West Nile Virus and Related Flavivirus in European Wild Boar (Sus scrofa), Latium Region, Italy: A Retrospective Study. Animals (Basel) 2020 Mar 16;10(3).
      doi: 10.3390/ani10030494pubmed: 32188017google scholar: lookup
    12. Zannoli S, Sambri V. West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus Co-Circulation in Europe: Epidemiology and Implications. Microorganisms 2019 Jun 26;7(7).
      doi: 10.3390/microorganisms7070184pubmed: 31248051google scholar: lookup
    13. Keyel AC, Elison Timm O, Backenson PB, Prussing C, Quinones S, McDonough KA, Vuille M, Conn JE, Armstrong PM, Andreadis TG, Kramer LD. Seasonal temperatures and hydrological conditions improve the prediction of West Nile virus infection rates in Culex mosquitoes and human case counts in New York and Connecticut. PLoS One 2019;14(6):e0217854.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0217854pubmed: 31158250google scholar: lookup
    14. Root JJ, Bosco-Lauth AM. West Nile Virus Associations in Wild Mammals: An Update. Viruses 2019 May 21;11(5).
      doi: 10.3390/v11050459pubmed: 31117189google scholar: lookup
    15. Prakoso D, Dark MJ, Barbet AF, Salemi M, Barr KL, Liu JJ, Wenzlow N, Waltzek TB, Long MT. Viral Enrichment Methods Affect the Detection but Not Sequence Variation of West Nile Virus in Equine Brain Tissue. Front Vet Sci 2018;5:318.
      doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00318pubmed: 30619900google scholar: lookup
    16. Vogels CB, Göertz GP, Pijlman GP, Koenraadt CJ. Vector competence of European mosquitoes for West Nile virus. Emerg Microbes Infect 2017 Nov 8;6(11):e96.
      doi: 10.1038/emi.2017.82pubmed: 29116220google scholar: lookup
    17. Platt DJ, Miner JJ. Consequences of congenital Zika virus infection. Curr Opin Virol 2017 Dec;27:1-7.
      doi: 10.1016/j.coviro.2017.09.005pubmed: 29080429google scholar: lookup
    18. Vogels CBF, Hartemink N, Koenraadt CJM. Modelling West Nile virus transmission risk in Europe: effect of temperature and mosquito biotypes on the basic reproduction number. Sci Rep 2017 Jul 10;7(1):5022.
      doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-05185-4pubmed: 28694450google scholar: lookup
    19. Hofmeister EK, Lund M, Shearn-Bochsler V, Balakrishnan CN. Susceptibility and Antibody Response of the Laboratory Model Zebra Finch (Taeniopygia guttata) to West Nile Virus. PLoS One 2017;12(1):e0167876.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167876pubmed: 28045891google scholar: lookup
    20. Shives KD, Massey AR, May NA, Morrison TE, Beckham JD. 4EBP-Dependent Signaling Supports West Nile Virus Growth and Protein Expression. Viruses 2016 Oct 18;8(10).
      doi: 10.3390/v8100287pubmed: 27763553google scholar: lookup
    21. Hinton MG, Reisen WK, Wheeler SS, Townsend AK. West Nile Virus Activity in a Winter Roost of American Crows (Corvus brachyrhynchos): Is Bird-To-Bird Transmission Important in Persistence and Amplification?. J Med Entomol 2015 Jul;52(4):683-92.
      doi: 10.1093/jme/tjv040pubmed: 26335475google scholar: lookup
    22. Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Prow NA, Wang W, Tan CS, Coyle M, Douma A, Hobson-Peters J, Kidd L, Hall RA, Petrovsky N. Safety and immunogenicity of a delta inulin-adjuvanted inactivated Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine in pregnant mares and foals. Vet Res 2014 Dec 17;45(1):130.
      doi: 10.1186/s13567-014-0130-7pubmed: 25516480google scholar: lookup
    23. Huang YJ, Higgs S, Horne KM, Vanlandingham DL. Flavivirus-mosquito interactions. Viruses 2014 Nov 24;6(11):4703-30.
      doi: 10.3390/v6114703pubmed: 25421894google scholar: lookup
    24. Di Sabatino D, Bruno R, Sauro F, Danzetta ML, Cito F, Iannetti S, Narcisi V, De Massis F, Calistri P. Epidemiology of West Nile disease in Europe and in the Mediterranean Basin from 2009 to 2013. Biomed Res Int 2014;2014:907852.
      doi: 10.1155/2014/907852pubmed: 25302311google scholar: lookup
    25. Bosco-Lauth A, Harmon JR, Lash RR, Weiss S, Langevin S, Savage HM, Godsey MS Jr, Burkhalter K, Root JJ, Gidlewski T, Nicholson WL, Brault AC, Komar N. West Nile virus isolated from a Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana) in northwestern Missouri, USA, 2012. J Wildl Dis 2014 Oct;50(4):976-8.
      doi: 10.7589/2013-11-295pubmed: 25098303google scholar: lookup
    26. Suen WW, Prow NA, Hall RA, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H. Mechanism of West Nile virus neuroinvasion: a critical appraisal. Viruses 2014 Jul 18;6(7):2796-825.
      doi: 10.3390/v6072796pubmed: 25046180google scholar: lookup
    27. VAN DEN Bossche D, Cnops L, Meersman K, Domingo C, VAN Gompel A, VAN Esbroeck M. Chikungunya virus and West Nile virus infections imported into Belgium, 2007-2012. Epidemiol Infect 2015 Jul;143(10):2227-36.
      doi: 10.1017/S0950268814000685pubmed: 24690286google scholar: lookup
    28. Del Amo J, Llorente F, Figuerola J, Soriguer RC, Moreno AM, Cordioli P, Weissenböck H, Jiménez-Clavero MA. Experimental infection of house sparrows (Passer domesticus) with West Nile virus isolates of Euro-Mediterranean and North American origins. Vet Res 2014 Mar 19;45(1):33.
      doi: 10.1186/1297-9716-45-33pubmed: 24641615google scholar: lookup
    29. Pérez-Ramírez E, Llorente F, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ. Experimental infections of wild birds with West Nile virus. Viruses 2014 Feb 13;6(2):752-81.
      doi: 10.3390/v6020752pubmed: 24531334google scholar: lookup
    30. Marka A, Diamantidis A, Papa A, Valiakos G, Chaintoutis SC, Doukas D, Tserkezou P, Giannakopoulos A, Papaspyropoulos K, Patsoula E, Badieritakis E, Baka A, Tseroni M, Pervanidou D, Papadopoulos NT, Koliopoulos G, Tontis D, Dovas CI, Billinis C, Tsakris A, Kremastinou J, Hadjichristodoulou C, Vakalis N, Vassalou E, Zarzani S, Zounos A, Komata K, Balatsos G, Beleri S, Mpimpa A, Papavasilopoulos V, Rodis I, Spanakos G, Tegos N, Spyrou V, Dalabiras Z, Birtsas P, Athanasiou L, Papanastassopoulou M, Ioannou C, Athanasiou C, Gerofotis C, Papadopoulou E, Testa T, Tsakalidou O, Rachiotis G, Bitsolas N, Mamouris Z, Moutou K, Sarafidou T, Stamatis K, Sarri K, Tsiodras S, Georgakopoulou T, Detsis M, Mavrouli M, Stavropoulou A, Politi L, Mageira G, Christopoulou V, Diamantopoulou G, Spanakis N, Vrioni G, Piperaki ET, Mitsopoulou K, Kioulos I, Michaelakis A, Stathis I, Tselentis I, Psaroulaki A, Keramarou M, Chochlakis D, Photis Y, Konstantinou M, Manetos P, Tsobanoglou S, Mourelatos S, Antalis V, Pergantas P, Eleftheriou G. West Nile virus state of the art report of MALWEST Project. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013 Dec 2;10(12):6534-610.
      doi: 10.3390/ijerph10126534pubmed: 24317379google scholar: lookup
    31. Caillouët KA, Robertson CW, Wheeler DC, Komar N, Bulluck LP. Vector contact rates on Eastern bluebird nestlings do not indicate West Nile virus transmission in Henrico County, Virginia, USA. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013 Nov 27;10(12):6366-79.
      doi: 10.3390/ijerph10126366pubmed: 24287858google scholar: lookup
    32. Ciota AT, Ehrbar DJ, Matacchiero AC, Van Slyke GA, Kramer LD. The evolution of virulence of West Nile virus in a mosquito vector: implications for arbovirus adaptation and evolution. BMC Evol Biol 2013 Mar 20;13:71.
      doi: 10.1186/1471-2148-13-71pubmed: 23514328google scholar: lookup
    33. Colpitts TM, Conway MJ, Montgomery RR, Fikrig E. West Nile Virus: biology, transmission, and human infection. Clin Microbiol Rev 2012 Oct;25(4):635-48.
      doi: 10.1128/CMR.00045-12pubmed: 23034323google scholar: lookup
    34. Hirota J, Shimoji Y, Shimizu S. New sensitive competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using a monoclonal antibody against nonstructural protein 1 of West Nile virus NY99. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2012 Feb;19(2):277-83.
      doi: 10.1128/CVI.05382-11pubmed: 22190400google scholar: lookup
    35. Brisson D, Brinkley C, Humphrey PT, Kemps BD, Ostfeld RS. It takes a community to raise the prevalence of a zoonotic pathogen. Interdiscip Perspect Infect Dis 2011;2011:741406.
      doi: 10.1155/2011/741406pubmed: 22162687google scholar: lookup
    36. Kwan JL, Kluh S, Madon MB, Nguyen DV, Barker CM, Reisen WK. Sentinel chicken seroconversions track tangential transmission of West Nile virus to humans in the greater Los Angeles area of California. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2010 Nov;83(5):1137-45.
      doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.2010.10-0078pubmed: 21036853google scholar: lookup
    37. Monini M, Falcone E, Busani L, Romi R, Ruggeri FM. West nile virus: characteristics of an african virus adapting to the third millennium world. Open Virol J 2010 Apr 22;4:42-51.
      doi: 10.2174/1874357901004020042pubmed: 20517488google scholar: lookup
    38. Lieberman MM, Nerurkar VR, Luo H, Cropp B, Carrion R Jr, de la Garza M, Coller BA, Clements D, Ogata S, Wong T, Martyak T, Weeks-Levy C. Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of a recombinant subunit West Nile virus vaccine in rhesus monkeys. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2009 Sep;16(9):1332-7.
      doi: 10.1128/CVI.00119-09pubmed: 19641099google scholar: lookup
    39. Swaddle JP, Calos SE. Increased avian diversity is associated with lower incidence of human West Nile infection: observation of the dilution effect. PLoS One 2008 Jun 25;3(6):e2488.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0002488pubmed: 18575599google scholar: lookup
    40. Ozharovskaia TA, Zubkova OV, Korobova EV, Dolzhikova IV, Zrelkin DI, Popova O, Goldovskaya PP, Kovyrshina AV, Korobkova AI, Favorskaya IA, Vavilova IV, Grousova DM, Zorkov ID, Iliukhina AA, Ermolova IA, Tukhvatulin AI, Shcherbinin DN, Ermolova EI, Kunda MS, Ryzhova NN, Voronina OL, Semikhin AS, Shcheblyakov DV, Logunov DY, Gintsburg AL. Adenoviral Vectors Expressing Optimized preM/E Genes of WNV Deliver Long-Term Protection Against Lethal West Nile Virus Challenge. Vaccines (Basel) 2025 Nov 21;13(12).
      doi: 10.3390/vaccines13121177pubmed: 41441644google scholar: lookup
    41. Güner AE, Küçükoğlu MB, Aktura B, Kıran P. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of West Nile virus infections in Istanbul, Türkiye: a population-based cohort study. BMC Infect Dis 2025 Nov 17;25(1):1603.
      doi: 10.1186/s12879-025-12019-6pubmed: 41249944google scholar: lookup
    42. Rapi MC, Martin AMM, Lelli D, Lavazza A, Raimondi S, Farioli M, Chiari M, Grilli G. Virological Passive Surveillance of Avian Influenza and Arboviruses in Wild Birds: A Two-Year Study (2023-2024) in Lombardy, Italy. Microorganisms 2025 Apr 22;13(5).
      doi: 10.3390/microorganisms13050958pubmed: 40431131google scholar: lookup
    43. Rusenova N, Rusenov A. First Serologic Evidence of West Nile Virus and Usutu Virus Circulation Among Dogs in the Bulgarian Danube Region and Analysis of Some Risk Factors. Vet Sci 2025 Apr 16;12(4).
      doi: 10.3390/vetsci12040373pubmed: 40284875google scholar: lookup
    44. Holicki CM, Ziegler U, Gaede W, Albrecht K, Hänske J, Walraph J, Sadeghi B, Groschup MH, Eiden M. Tracking WNV transmission with a combined dog and wild boar surveillance system. Sci Rep 2025 Apr 1;15(1):11083.
      doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-89561-5pubmed: 40169736google scholar: lookup
    45. Schwartz FW, Ibaraki M, Hort HM. Seasonal Bird Migration Could Explain Regional Synchronicity and Amplification in Human West Nile Virus Case Numbers. Geohealth 2025 Mar;9(3):e2024GH001194.
      doi: 10.1029/2024GH001194pubmed: 40115967google scholar: lookup
    46. Frasca F, Sorrentino L, Fracella M, D'Auria A, Coratti E, Maddaloni L, Bugani G, Gentile M, Pierangeli A, d'Ettorre G, Scagnolari C. An Update on the Entomology, Virology, Pathogenesis, and Epidemiology Status of West Nile and Dengue Viruses in Europe (2018-2023). Trop Med Infect Dis 2024 Jul 20;9(7).
      doi: 10.3390/tropicalmed9070166pubmed: 39058208google scholar: lookup
    47. Prat M, Jeanneau M, Rakotoarivony I, Duhayon M, Simonin Y, Savini G, Labbé P, Alout H. Virulence and transmission vary between Usutu virus lineages in Culex pipiens. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024 Jun;18(6):e0012295.
      doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0012295pubmed: 38935783google scholar: lookup
    48. Cendejas PM, Goodman AG. Vaccination and Control Methods of West Nile Virus Infection in Equids and Humans. Vaccines (Basel) 2024 May 1;12(5).
      doi: 10.3390/vaccines12050485pubmed: 38793736google scholar: lookup
    49. Naveed A, Eertink LG, Wang D, Li F. Lessons Learned from West Nile Virus Infection:Vaccinations in Equines and Their Implications for One Health Approaches. Viruses 2024 May 14;16(5).
      doi: 10.3390/v16050781pubmed: 38793662google scholar: lookup
    50. Underwood EC, Vera IM, Allen D, Alvior J, O'Driscoll M, Silbert S, Kim K, Barr KL. Seroprevalence of West Nile Virus in Tampa Bay Florida Patients Admitted to Hospital during 2020-2021 for Respiratory Symptoms. Viruses 2024 Apr 30;16(5).
      doi: 10.3390/v16050719pubmed: 38793601google scholar: lookup
    51. Rusenova N, Rusenov A, Chervenkov M, Sirakov I. Seroprevalence of West Nile Virus among Equids in Bulgaria in 2022 and Assessment of Some Risk Factors. Vet Sci 2024 May 9;11(5).
      doi: 10.3390/vetsci11050209pubmed: 38787181google scholar: lookup
    52. Herron ICT, Laws TR, Nelson M. Marmosets as models of infectious diseases. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2024;14:1340017.
      doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2024.1340017pubmed: 38465237google scholar: lookup
    53. Henriques P, Rosa A, Caldeira-Araújo H, Soares P, Vigário AM. Flying under the radar - impact and factors influencing asymptomatic DENV infections. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2023;13:1284651.
      doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1284651pubmed: 38076464google scholar: lookup
    54. Schwarz ER, Long MT. Comparison of West Nile Virus Disease in Humans and Horses: Exploiting Similarities for Enhancing Syndromic Surveillance. Viruses 2023 May 24;15(6).
      doi: 10.3390/v15061230pubmed: 37376530google scholar: lookup
    55. Bisanzio D, McMillan JR, Barreto JG, Blitvich BJ, Mead DG, O'Connor J, Kitron U. Evidence for West Nile virus spillover into the squirrel population in Atlanta, Georgia. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2015 May;15(5):303-10.
      doi: 10.1089/vbz.2014.1734pubmed: 25988439google scholar: lookup
    Subscribe to our newsletter
    Join 99,727 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.