FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Transbound Emerg Dis / High exposure of West Nile virus in equid and wild bird popu...
Transboundary and emerging diseases2022; 69(6); 3624-3636; doi: 10.1111/tbed.14733

High exposure of West Nile virus in equid and wild bird populations in Spain following the epidemic outbreak in 2020.

Abstract: A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess the circulation and risk factors associated with West Nile virus (WNV) exposure in equine and wild bird populations following the largest epidemic outbreak ever reported in Spain. A total of 305 equids and 171 wild birds were sampled between November 2020 and June 2021. IgG antibodies against flaviviruses were detected by blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (bELISA) in 44.9% (109/243) and 87.1% (54/62) of unvaccinated and vaccinated equids, respectively. The individual seroprevalence in unvaccinated individuals (calculated on animals seropositive by both bELISA and virus microneutralization test [VNT]) was 38.3% (95%CI: 33.1-43.4). No IgM antibodies were detected in animals tested (0/243; 0.0%; 95%CI: 0.0-1.5) by capture-ELISA. The main risk factors associated with WNV exposure in equids were age (adult and geriatric), breed (crossbred) and the absence of a disinsection programme on the facilities. In wild birds, IgG antibodies against flaviviruses were found in 32.7% (56/171; 95%CI: 26.8-38.6) using bELISA, giving an individual WNV seroprevalence of 19.3% (95%CI: 14.3-24.3) after VNT. Seropositivity was found in 37.8% of the 37 species analysed. Species group (raptors), age (>1-year old) and size (large) were the main risk factors related to WNV seropositivity in wild birds. Our results indicate high exposure and widespread distribution of WNV in equid and wild bird populations in Spain after the epidemic outbreak in 2020. The present study highlights the need to continue and improve active surveillance programmes for the detection of WNV in Spain, particularly in those areas at greatest risk of virus circulation.
© 2022 The Authors. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases published by Wiley-VCH GmbH.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2022-10-22 PubMed ID: 36222172PubMed Central: PMC10092718DOI: 10.1111/tbed.14733Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article focuses on a study tracing the high exposure and circulation of West Nile virus (WNV) among equine and wild bird populations in Spain, precipitated by a major epidemic outbreak in 2020. The study evaluates the predominant risk factors contributing to such exposure, underscoring the crucial role of constant, improved surveillance programs in virus detection and control.

Study Design and Sampling

  • The research was built on a cross-sectional study aiming to measure the circulation of West Nile virus (WNV) and associated risk factors in equine and wild bird populations after the largest WNV outbreak in Spain.
  • 305 equids (a family of mammals that include horses and zebras) and 171 wild birds were sampled between November 2020 and June 2021 to conduct this research.

Testing and Results

  • A blocking enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (bELISA) was used to identify IgG antibodies against flaviviruses—an important step in diagnosing the infection.
  • In unvaccinated and vaccinated equids, the test results showed a high rate of flavivirus exposure, with 44.9% and 87.1% respectively being seropositive. No IgM antibodies were found, indicating a lack of recent exposure to the virus.
  • In wild birds, 32.7% tested positive for flavivirus exposure using bELISA, revealing widespread WNV circulation among these populations as well.

Risk Factors

  • For equids, identified risk factors for WNV exposure included age (adult and geriatric), breed (crossbred), and lack of a disinsection programme in their habitat facilities.
  • For wild birds, risk factors included species (raptors), age (>1-year old), and size (large) in relation to WNV seropositivity.

Implications and Recommendations

  • The study confirmed the high exposure and wide distribution of WNV in equid and wild bird populations following the 2020 epidemic.
  • This underlines the importance of continuous and enhanced active surveillance, especially in areas of higher virus circulation risk, to better detect and manage WNV in Spain.

Cite This Article

APA
(2022). High exposure of West Nile virus in equid and wild bird populations in Spain following the epidemic outbreak in 2020. Transbound Emerg Dis, 69(6), 3624-3636. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.14733

Publication

Transboundary and emerging diseases
ISSN: 1865-1682
NlmUniqueID: 101319538
Country: Germany
Language: English
Volume: 69
Issue: 6
Pages: 3624-3636

Researcher Affiliations

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Horses
  • West Nile virus
  • West Nile Fever / epidemiology
  • West Nile Fever / veterinary
  • Spain / epidemiology
  • Seroepidemiologic Studies
  • Cross-Sectional Studies
  • Animals, Wild
  • Flavivirus
  • Birds
  • Disease Outbreaks / veterinary
  • Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay / veterinary
  • Immunoglobulin G
  • Antibodies, Viral
  • Horse Diseases / epidemiology

Conflict of Interest Statement

None of the authors of this study has a financial or personal relationship with other people or organizations that could inappropriately influence or bias the content of the paper.

References

This article includes 58 references
  1. Abad-Cobo A, Llorente F, Barbero MDC, Cruz-López F, Forés P, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ. Serosurvey Reveals Exposure to West Nile Virus in Asymptomatic Horse Populations in Central Spain Prior to Recent Disease Foci.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017 Oct;64(5):1387-1392.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.12510pubmed: 27156847google scholar: lookup
  2. Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Napp S, Llorente F, Solano-Manrique C, Molina-López R, Obón E, Solé A, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Fernández-Pinero J, Busquets N. West Nile Virus Lineage 2 Spreads Westwards in Europe and Overwinters in North-Eastern Spain (2017-2020).. Viruses 2022 Mar 9;14(3).
    doi: 10.3390/v14030569pmc: PMC8951896pubmed: 35336976google scholar: lookup
  3. Bażanów B, Jansen van Vuren P, Szymański P, Stygar D, Frącka A, Twardoń J, Kozdrowski R, Pawęska JT. A Survey on West Nile and Usutu Viruses in Horses and Birds in Poland.. Viruses 2018 Feb 17;10(2).
    doi: 10.3390/v10020087pmc: PMC5850394pubmed: 29462983google scholar: lookup
  4. Bravo-Barriga D, Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Guerrero-Carvajal F, Llorente F, Reina D, Pérez-Martín JE, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Frontera E. West Nile and Usutu virus infections in wild birds admitted to rehabilitation centres in Extremadura, western Spain, 2017-2019.. Vet Microbiol 2021 Apr;255:109020.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2021.109020pubmed: 33677369google scholar: lookup
  5. Bunning ML, Bowen RA, Cropp CB, Sullivan KG, Davis BS, Komar N, Godsey MS, Baker D, Hettler DL, Holmes DA, Biggerstaff BJ, Mitchell CJ. Experimental infection of horses with West Nile virus.. Emerg Infect Dis 2002 Apr;8(4):380-6.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0804.010239pmc: PMC3393377pubmed: 11971771google scholar: lookup
  6. Busquets N, Alba A, Allepuz A, Aranda C, Ignacio Nuñez J. Usutu virus sequences in Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae), Spain.. Emerg Infect Dis 2008 May;14(5):861-3.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1405.071577pmc: PMC2600269pubmed: 18439389google scholar: lookup
  7. Busquets N, Laranjo-González M, Soler M, Nicolás O, Rivas R, Talavera S, Villalba R, San Miguel E, Torner N, Aranda C, Napp S. Detection of West Nile virus lineage 2 in North-Eastern Spain (Catalonia).. Transbound Emerg Dis 2019 Mar;66(2):617-621.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13086pmc: PMC7380044pubmed: 30506625google scholar: lookup
  8. Cardinale E, Bernard C, Lecollinet S, Rakotoharinome VM, Ravaomanana J, Roger M, Olive MM, Meenowa D, Jaumally MR, Melanie J, Héraud JM, Zientara S, Cêtre-Sossah C. West Nile virus infection in horses, Indian ocean.. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2017 Aug;53:45-49.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cimid.2017.06.006pubmed: 28750867google scholar: lookup
  9. Casimiro-Soriguer CS, Perez-Florido J, Fernandez-Rueda JL, Pedrosa-Corral I, Guillot-Sulay V, Lorusso N, Martinez-Gonzalez LJ, Navarro-Marí JM, Dopazo J, Sanbonmatsu-Gámez S. Phylogenetic Analysis of the 2020 West Nile Virus (WNV) Outbreak in Andalusia (Spain).. Viruses 2021 May 5;13(5).
    doi: 10.3390/v13050836pmc: PMC8148183pubmed: 34063166google scholar: lookup
  10. Christova I, Papa A, Trifonova I, Panayotova E, Pappa S, Mikov O. West Nile virus lineage 2 in humans and mosquitoes in Bulgaria, 2018-2019.. J Clin Virol 2020 Jun;127:104365.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jcv.2020.104365pubmed: 32305885google scholar: lookup
  11. Cuervo PF, Artigas P, Mas-Coma S, Bargues MD. West Nile virus in Spain: Forecasting the geographical distribution of risky areas with an ecological niche modelling approach.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2022 Jul;69(4):e1113-e1129.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.14398pubmed: 34812589google scholar: lookup
  12. David S, Abraham AM. Epidemiological and clinical aspects on West Nile virus, a globally emerging pathogen.. Infect Dis (Lond) 2016 Aug;48(8):571-86.
    doi: 10.3109/23744235.2016.1164890pubmed: 27207312google scholar: lookup
  13. ECDC. Vector control practices and strategies against West Nile virus. ECDC .
  14. ECDC. Surveillance atlas of infectious diseases. West Nile virus infection. ECDC .
  15. Ferraguti M, LA Puente JM, Soriguer R, Llorente F, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Figuerola J. West Nile virus-neutralizing antibodies in wild birds from southern Spain.. Epidemiol Infect 2016 Jul;144(9):1907-11.
    doi: 10.1017/S0950268816000133pmc: PMC9150652pubmed: 26846720google scholar: lookup
  16. Figuerola J, Jiménez-Clavero MA, López G, Rubio C, Soriguer R, Gómez-Tejedor C, Tenorio A. Size matters: West Nile Virus neutralizing antibodies in resident and migratory birds in Spain.. Vet Microbiol 2008 Nov 25;132(1-2):39-46.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2008.04.023pubmed: 18514437google scholar: lookup
  17. Gamino V, Gutiérrez-Guzmán AV, Fernández-de-Mera IG, Ortíz JA, Durán-Martín M, de la Fuente J, Gortázar C, Höfle U. Natural Bagaza virus infection in game birds in southern Spain.. Vet Res 2012 Sep 11;43(1):65.
    doi: 10.1186/1297-9716-43-65pmc: PMC3483237pubmed: 22966904google scholar: lookup
  18. García-Bocanegra I, Belkhiria J, Napp S, Cano-Terriza D, Jiménez-Ruiz S, Martínez-López B. Epidemiology and spatio-temporal analysis of West Nile virus in horses in Spain between 2010 and 2016.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2018 Apr;65(2):567-577.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.12742pubmed: 29034611google scholar: lookup
  19. García-Bocanegra I, Zorrilla I, Rodríguez E, Rayas E, Camacho L, Redondo I, Gómez-Guillamón F. Monitoring of the Bagaza virus epidemic in wild bird species in Spain, 2010.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2013 Apr;60(2):120-6.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2012.01324.xpubmed: 22486922google scholar: lookup
  20. García-Bocanegra I, Arenas-Montes A, Napp S, Jaén-Téllez JA, Fernández-Morente M, Fernández-Molera V, Arenas A. Seroprevalence and risk factors associated to West Nile virus in horses from Andalusia, Southern Spain.. Vet Microbiol 2012 Dec 7;160(3-4):341-6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.06.027pubmed: 22776513google scholar: lookup
  21. García-Bocanegra I, Busquets N, Napp S, Alba A, Zorrilla I, Villalba R, Arenas A. Serosurvey of West Nile virus and other flaviviruses of the Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex in birds from Andalusia, southern Spain.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011 Aug;11(8):1107-13.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2009.0237pubmed: 21142954google scholar: lookup
  22. García-Bocanegra I, Jaén-Téllez JA, Napp S, Arenas-Montes A, Fernández-Morente M, Fernández-Molera V, Arenas A. West Nile fever outbreak in horses and humans, Spain, 2010.. Emerg Infect Dis 2011 Dec;17(12):2397-9.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1712.110651pmc: PMC3311180pubmed: 22172565google scholar: lookup
  23. Golnik W, Bażanów B, Florek M, Pawęska J. Prevalence of equine arteritis and West Nile virus—Specific antibodies in thoroughbred horses in Poland. Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie‐Skłodowska 26, 1–4.
  24. Guerrero-Carvajal F, Bravo-Barriga D, Martín-Cuervo M, Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Ferraguti M, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Llorente F, Alonso JM, Frontera E. Serological evidence of co-circulation of West Nile and Usutu viruses in equids from western Spain.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021 May;68(3):1432-1444.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13810pubmed: 32853452google scholar: lookup
  25. Höfle U, Blanco JM, Crespo E, Naranjo V, Jiménez-Clavero MA, Sanchez A, de la Fuente J, Gortazar C. West Nile virus in the endangered Spanish imperial eagle.. Vet Microbiol 2008 May 25;129(1-2):171-8.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.11.006pubmed: 18155367google scholar: lookup
  26. Hubálek Z, Wegner E, Halouzka J, Tryjanowski P, Jerzak L, Sikutová S, Rudolf I, Kruszewicz AG, Jaworski Z, Wlodarczyk R. Serologic survey of potential vertebrate hosts for West Nile virus in Poland.. Viral Immunol 2008 Jun;21(2):247-53.
    doi: 10.1089/vim.2007.0111pubmed: 18433332google scholar: lookup
  27. Jiménez-Clavero MA, Sotelo E, Fernandez-Pinero J, Llorente F, Blanco JM, Rodriguez-Ramos J, Perez-Ramirez E, Höfle U. West Nile virus in golden eagles, Spain, 2007.. Emerg Infect Dis 2008 Sep;14(9):1489-91.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1409.080190pmc: PMC2603101pubmed: 18760030google scholar: lookup
  28. Jiménez-Clavero MA, Tejedor CG, Rojo G, Soriguer R, Figuerola J. Serosurvey of West Nile virus in equids and bovids in Spain.. Vet Rec 2007 Aug 11;161(6):212.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.161.6.212pubmed: 17693638google scholar: lookup
  29. Jourdain E, Toussaint Y, Leblond A, Bicout DJ, Sabatier P, Gauthier-Clerc M. Bird species potentially involved in introduction, amplification, and spread of West Nile virus in a Mediterranean wetland, the Camargue (Southern France).. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2007 Spring;7(1):15-33.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2006.0543pubmed: 17417954google scholar: lookup
  30. Jurado-Tarifa E, Napp S, Lecollinet S, Arenas A, Beck C, Cerdà-Cuéllar M, Fernández-Morente M, García-Bocanegra I. Monitoring of West Nile virus, Usutu virus and Meaban virus in waterfowl used as decoys and wild raptors in southern Spain.. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2016 Dec;49:58-64.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cimid.2016.10.001pubmed: 27865265google scholar: lookup
  31. Kaptoul D, Viladrich PF, Domingo C, Niubó J, Martínez-Yélamos S, De Ory F, Tenorio A. West Nile virus in Spain: report of the first diagnosed case (in Spain) in a human with aseptic meningitis.. Scand J Infect Dis 2007;39(1):70-1.
    doi: 10.1080/00365540600740553pubmed: 17366016google scholar: lookup
  32. Khatibzadeh SM, Gold CB, Keggan AE, Perkins GA, Glaser AL, Dubovi EJ, Wagner B. West Nile virus-specific immunoglobulin isotype responses in vaccinated and infected horses.. Am J Vet Res 2015 Jan;76(1):92-100.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.76.1.92pubmed: 25535666google scholar: lookup
  33. Komar N, Langevin S, Hinten S, Nemeth N, Edwards E, Hettler D, Davis B, Bowen R, Bunning M. Experimental infection of North American birds with the New York 1999 strain of West Nile virus.. Emerg Infect Dis 2003 Mar;9(3):311-22.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0903.020628pmc: PMC2958552pubmed: 12643825google scholar: lookup
  34. Llorente F, García-Irazábal A, Pérez-Ramírez E, Cano-Gómez C, Sarasa M, Vázquez A, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ. Influence of flavivirus co-circulation in serological diagnostics and surveillance: A model of study using West Nile, Usutu and Bagaza viruses.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2019 Sep;66(5):2100-2106.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13262pubmed: 31150146google scholar: lookup
  35. Lupulovic D, Martín-Acebes MA, Lazic S, Alonso-Padilla J, Blázquez AB, Escribano-Romero E, Petrovic T, Saiz JC. First serological evidence of West Nile virus activity in horses in Serbia.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011 Sep;11(9):1303-5.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0249pubmed: 21438694google scholar: lookup
  36. Metz MBC, Olufemi OT, Daly JM, Barba M. Systematic review and meta-analysis of seroprevalence studies of West Nile virus in equids in Europe between 2001 and 2018.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2021 Jul;68(4):1814-1823.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13866pubmed: 33012076google scholar: lookup
  37. Napp S, Llorente F, Beck C, Jose-Cunilleras E, Soler M, Pailler-García L, Amaral R, Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Pifarré M, Molina-López R, Obón E, Nicolás O, Lecollinet S, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Busquets N. Widespread Circulation of Flaviviruses in Horses and Birds in Northeastern Spain (Catalonia) between 2010 and 2019.. Viruses 2021 Nov 30;13(12).
    doi: 10.3390/v13122404pmc: PMC8708358pubmed: 34960673google scholar: lookup
  38. Nemeth N, Kratz G, Edwards E, Scherpelz J, Bowen R, Komar N. Surveillance for West Nile virus in clinic-admitted raptors, Colorado.. Emerg Infect Dis 2007 Feb;13(2):305-7.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1302.051626pmc: PMC2725852pubmed: 17479898google scholar: lookup
  39. Niczyporuk JS, Samorek-Salamonowicz E, Lecollinet S, Pancewicz SA, Kozdruń W, Czekaj H. Occurrence of West Nile virus antibodies in wild birds, horses, and humans in Poland.. Biomed Res Int 2015;2015:234181.
    doi: 10.1155/2015/234181pmc: PMC4383358pubmed: 25866767google scholar: lookup
  40. OIE. OIE terrestrial manual. OIE .
  41. Ostlund EN, Andresen JE, Andresen M. West Nile encephalitis.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2000 Dec;16(3):427-41.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30087-1pubmed: 11219341google scholar: lookup
  42. Pérez-Ramírez E, Llorente F, Del Amo J, Fall G, Sall AA, Lubisi A, Lecollinet S, Vázquez A, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ. Pathogenicity evaluation of twelve West Nile virus strains belonging to four lineages from five continents in a mouse model: discrimination between three pathogenicity categories.. J Gen Virol 2017 Apr;98(4):662-670.
    doi: 10.1099/jgv.0.000743pubmed: 28475031google scholar: lookup
  43. Petersen LR, Brault AC, Nasci RS. West Nile virus: review of the literature.. JAMA 2013 Jul 17;310(3):308-15.
    doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.8042pmc: PMC4563989pubmed: 23860989google scholar: lookup
  44. Petrović T, Lazić S, Lupulović D, Lazić G, Bugarski D, Vidanović D, Petrić D. Serological study on WNV presence in horses in Vojvodina after the human outbreak in Serbia in 2012. Archives of Biological Sciences 66, 473–481.
    doi: 10.2298/ABS14google scholar: lookup
  45. R Core Team. R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing .
  46. RASVE. Dirección General de Sanidad de la Producción Agraria. RASVE .
  47. García San Miguel Rodríguez-Alarcón L, Fernández-Martínez B, Sierra Moros MJ, Vázquez A, Julián Pachés P, García Villacieros E, Gómez Martín MB, Figuerola Borras J, Lorusso N, Ramos Aceitero JM, Moro E, de Celis A, Oyonarte S, Mahillo B, Romero González LJ, Sánchez-Seco MP, Suárez Rodríguez B, Ameyugo Catalán U, Ruiz Contreras S, Pérez-Olmeda M, Simón Soria F. Unprecedented increase of West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease, Spain, summer 2020.. Euro Surveill 2021 May;26(19).
    doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2021.26.19.2002010pmc: PMC8120797pubmed: 33988123google scholar: lookup
  48. Rossi SL, Ross TM, Evans JD. West Nile virus.. Clin Lab Med 2010 Mar;30(1):47-65.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cll.2009.10.006pmc: PMC2905782pubmed: 20513541google scholar: lookup
  49. Saiz JC, Martín-Acebes MA, Blázquez AB, Escribano-Romero E, Poderoso T, Jiménez de Oya N. Pathogenicity and virulence of West Nile virus revisited eight decades after its first isolation.. Virulence 2021 Dec;12(1):1145-1173.
    doi: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1908740pmc: PMC8043182pubmed: 33843445google scholar: lookup
  50. Schuffenecker I, Peyrefitte CN, el Harrak M, Murri S, Leblond A, Zeller HG. West Nile virus in Morocco, 2003.. Emerg Infect Dis 2005 Feb;11(2):306-9.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1102.040817pmc: PMC3320441pubmed: 15752452google scholar: lookup
  51. Spanoudis CG, Andreadis SS, Bray DP, Savopoulou-Soultani M, Ignell R. Behavioural response of the house mosquitoes Culex quinquefasciatus and Culex pipiens molestus to avian odours and its reliance on carbon dioxide.. Med Vet Entomol 2020 Jun;34(2):129-137.
    doi: 10.1111/mve.12429pubmed: 31912522google scholar: lookup
  52. Thrusfield M, Christley R. Veterinary epidemiology (4th ed.). Wiley‐Blackwell .
  53. van den Berg H, Velayudhan R, Yadav RS. Management of insecticides for use in disease vector control: Lessons from six countries in Asia and the Middle East.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021 Apr;15(4):e0009358.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009358pmc: PMC8115796pubmed: 33930033google scholar: lookup
  54. Vanhomwegen J, Beck C, Desprès P, Figuerola A, García R, Lecollinet S, López-Roig M, Manuguerra JC, Serra-Cobo J. Circulation of Zoonotic Arboviruses in Equine Populations of Mallorca Island (Spain).. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2017 May;17(5):340-346.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2016.2042pubmed: 28346868google scholar: lookup
  55. Victoriano Llopis I, Tomassone L, Grego E, Serrano E, Mosca A, Vaschetti G, Andrade D, Rossi L. Evaluating the feeding preferences of West Nile virus mosquito vectors using bird-baited traps.. Parasit Vectors 2016 Aug 31;9(1):479.
    doi: 10.1186/s13071-016-1744-6pmc: PMC5006430pubmed: 27580694google scholar: lookup
  56. Vidaña B, Busquets N, Napp S, Pérez-Ramírez E, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Johnson N. The Role of Birds of Prey in West Nile Virus Epidemiology.. Vaccines (Basel) 2020 Sep 21;8(3).
    doi: 10.3390/vaccines8030550pmc: PMC7564710pubmed: 32967268google scholar: lookup
  57. Wilson AL, Courtenay O, Kelly-Hope LA, Scott TW, Takken W, Torr SJ, Lindsay SW. The importance of vector control for the control and elimination of vector-borne diseases.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020 Jan;14(1):e0007831.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007831pmc: PMC6964823pubmed: 31945061google scholar: lookup
  58. Ziegler U, Angenvoort J, Fischer D, Fast C, Eiden M, Rodriguez AV, Revilla-Fernández S, Nowotny N, de la Fuente JG, Lierz M, Groschup MH. Pathogenesis of West Nile virus lineage 1 and 2 in experimentally infected large falcons.. Vet Microbiol 2013 Jan 25;161(3-4):263-73.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.07.041pubmed: 22909991google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 7 times.
  1. Nistor P, Stanga L, Chirila A, Iorgoni V, Gligor A, Ciresan A, Florea B, Bota C, Cocioba V, Popa I, Orghici G, Iancu I, Maris CH, Degi J, Herman V. Mosquito Exposure Risks in Equine Facilities: An Environmental-Managerial Assessment in Western Romania. Microorganisms 2025 Nov 20;13(11).
    doi: 10.3390/microorganisms13112637pubmed: 41304321google scholar: lookup
  2. Stufano A, Schino V, Sacino G, Ravallese R, Ravallese R, De Benedictis L, Morea A, Iatta R, Giannecchini S, Stincarelli MA, Chironna M, Trombetta CM, Lovreglio P. West Nile Virus Seroprevalence Among Outdoor Workers in Southern Italy: Unveiling Occupational Risks and Public Health Implications. Viruses 2025 Feb 24;17(3).
    doi: 10.3390/v17030310pubmed: 40143241google scholar: lookup
  3. Casades-Martí L, Peralbo-Moreno A, Delacour-Estrella S, Ruiz-Fons F. Environmental determinants of West Nile virus vector abundance at the wildlife-livestock interface. Med Vet Entomol 2025 Mar;39(1):200-215.
    doi: 10.1111/mve.12774pubmed: 39499206google scholar: lookup
  4. Williams RAJ, Criollo Valencia HA, López Márquez I, González González F, Llorente F, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Busquets N, Mateo Barrientos M, Ortiz-Díez G, Ayllón Santiago T. West Nile Virus Seroprevalence in Wild Birds and Equines in Madrid Province, Spain. Vet Sci 2024 Jun 7;11(6).
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci11060259pubmed: 38922006google scholar: lookup
  5. Zanella G, Beck C, Valle-Casuso JC, Anthony M, Cruz M, Vélez A, Vinueza RL, Gonzalez G. Undetection of vector-borne viruses in equids of Galapagos Islands. Front Vet Sci 2024;11:1411624.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1411624pubmed: 38911677google scholar: lookup
  6. Schilling M, Dunkel B, Floyd T, Hicks D, Nunez A, Steinbach F, Folly AJ, Johnson N. Fatal West Nile Virus Infection in Horse Returning to United Kingdom from Spain, 2022. Emerg Infect Dis 2024 Feb;30(2):396-398.
    doi: 10.3201/eid3002.230690pubmed: 38270166google scholar: lookup
  7. García-Carrasco JM, Muñoz AR, Olivero J, Segura M, García-Bocanegra I, Real R. West Nile virus in the Iberian Peninsula: using equine cases to identify high-risk areas for humans. Euro Surveill 2023 Oct;28(40).
    doi: 10.2807/1560-7917.ES.2023.28.40.2200844pubmed: 37796440google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.