FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Vet Sci / Intraocular Tumors in Horses: Diagnosis, Tumor Classificatio...
Veterinary sciences2025; 12(10); 1006; doi: 10.3390/vetsci12101006

Intraocular Tumors in Horses: Diagnosis, Tumor Classification, Oncologic Assessment and Therapy.

Abstract: Intraocular neoplasia in horses is rare and only few case reports and small case series exist. Intraocular neoplasia has various clinical signs and includes important differential diagnoses in ocular disease. This narrative review of the current literature aims to provide a clinically relevant overview and classification of intraocular tumors in horses and adds a comparative oncological perspective concerning diagnosis, treatment and future considerations. The available clinical and imaging examination techniques allow for a reliable and differentiated investigation of the tumor, even in the standing horse, using high-frequency ultrasound or optical coherence tomography, which have gained importance in equine ophthalmology. Sectional imaging techniques, in particular computed tomography, are suitable for the examination of the peribulbar, retrobulbar and orbital structures. Differentiated diagnostics including precise tumor staging (TNM: tumor, node, metastasis) are essential for a general prognostic and therapeutic assessment. The embryologic and anatomic tissue origin of the neoplasm is the basis for clinicopathologic classification. Medulloepithelioma and uveal melanocytic neoplasia are the most common intraocular tissue formations occurring in horses. Whereas melanocytic neoplasia of the iris can be treated surgically, neuroepithelial tumors regularly lead to bulbus extirpation. Other primary intraocular neoplasms are sporadically reported, as well as intraocular metastasis of systemic neoplasia. Chemotherapy and radiation therapy are not currently used to treat intraocular neoplasia in horses and need to be further investigated, especially regarding the latest developments in human and small animal medicine. In addition, horses and dogs may serve as models for human oncologic research.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-10-17 PubMed ID: 41150147PubMed Central: PMC12568005DOI: 10.3390/vetsci12101006Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Intraocular tumors in horses are uncommon and present with various clinical signs, necessitating careful diagnosis and classification for effective treatment. This review summarizes current knowledge on how these tumors are diagnosed, classified, assessed oncologically, and treated in horses, highlighting similarities with other species and potential future therapies.

Overview of Intraocular Neoplasia in Horses

  • Intraocular tumors in horses are rare, with limited case reports and small series documented.
  • They manifest through diverse clinical signs, making differential diagnosis important in ocular diseases.
  • The tumors arise from various embryonic and anatomical origins, which is important for their classification.
  • Medulloepithelioma and uveal melanocytic neoplasia are the most common intraocular tumors in horses.

Diagnostic Techniques

  • Modern imaging methods facilitate reliable diagnosis even in standing horses.
  • High-frequency ultrasound and optical coherence tomography have become important tools in equine ophthalmology.
  • Computed tomography (CT) scans are effective for assessing surrounding tissues like peribulbar, retrobulbar, and orbital regions.
  • Precise tumor staging using the TNM system (Tumor, Node, Metastasis) is essential for prognosis and deciding treatment options.

Classification and Common Tumor Types

  • Classification depends on the tissue origin of the tumor based on embryologic and anatomic criteria.
  • Uveal melanocytic tumors involve pigmentation-related cells and may affect the iris.
  • Medulloepithelioma is a neuroepithelial tumor frequently necessitating removal of the eyeball (bulbus extirpation).
  • Other primary intraocular tumors are rarely reported; occasionally, tumors may metastasize to the eye from systemic cancers.

Treatment Approaches and Prognosis

  • Surgical removal is effective and preferred for certain melanocytic tumors, particularly those of the iris.
  • Neuroepithelial tumors typically require enucleation due to their aggressive nature.
  • Chemotherapy and radiation therapy are not currently standard for treating intraocular tumors in horses, unlike in human or small animal medicine.
  • Further research is necessary to explore the potential of these therapies for equine patients.

Comparative Oncology and Future Directions

  • Horses and dogs have potential as comparative models for human ocular oncology research.
  • Advances in human and small animal cancer treatment might translate to new therapies for equine intraocular neoplasia.
  • Future investigations should focus on integrating chemotherapy and radiation into equine treatment protocols.
  • A multidisciplinary approach involving advanced imaging and tumor staging may improve therapeutic outcomes.

Cite This Article

APA
Ostendarp C, Barton AK. (2025). Intraocular Tumors in Horses: Diagnosis, Tumor Classification, Oncologic Assessment and Therapy. Vet Sci, 12(10), 1006. https://doi.org/10.3390/vetsci12101006

Publication

Veterinary sciences
ISSN: 2306-7381
NlmUniqueID: 101680127
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 12
Issue: 10
PII: 1006

Researcher Affiliations

Ostendarp, Christopher
  • Equine Clinic Hochmoor, Ruthmannstr. 10, 48712 Gescher, Germany.
Barton, Ann Kristin
  • Equine Clinic Hochmoor, Ruthmannstr. 10, 48712 Gescher, Germany.
  • Veterinary Department, Freie Universitaet Berlin, Oertzenweg 19b, 14163 Berlin, Germany.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interests.

References

This article includes 173 references
  1. Milman T, Grossniklaus H.E, Goldman-Levy G, Kivelä T.T, Coupland S.E, White V.A, Mudhar H.S, Eberhart C.G, Verdijk R.M, Heegaard S. The 5th Edition of the World Health Organization Classification of Tumours of the Eye and Orbit. Ocul. Oncol. Pathol. 2023;9:71–95.
    doi: 10.1159/000530730pmc: PMC10601864pubmed: 37900189google scholar: lookup
  2. Durham A.C, Pillitteri C.A, San Myint M, Valli V.E. Two hundred three cases of equine lymphoma classified according to the World Health Organization (WHO) classification criteria. Vet. Pathol. 2013;50:86–93.
    doi: 10.1177/0300985812451603pubmed: 22700849google scholar: lookup
  3. Bornfeld N, Biewald E, Bauer S, Temming P, Lohmann D, Zeschnigk M. The Interdisciplinary Diagnosis and Treatment of Intraocular Tumors. Dtsch. Arztebl. Int. 2018;115:106–111.
    doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2018.0106pmc: PMC5842342pubmed: 29510820google scholar: lookup
  4. Cui Y, Yin S, Qin X, Jiao W, Ren A, Wang F, Zhao B. Advances in the treatment of intraocular malignancies: A literature review. Front. Med. 2022;18:975565.
    doi: 10.3389/fmed.2022.975565pmc: PMC9624174pubmed: 36330064google scholar: lookup
  5. Branisteanu D.C, Bogdanici C.M, Branisteanu D.E, Maranduca M.A, Zemba M, Balta F, Branisteanu C.I, Moraru A.D. Uveal melanoma diagnosis and current treatment options (Review). Exp. Ther. Med. 2021;22:1428.
    doi: 10.3892/etm.2021.10863pmc: PMC8543295pubmed: 34707709google scholar: lookup
  6. Oh J.H, Cho J.-Y. Comparative oncology: Overcoming human cancer through companion animal studies. Exp. Mol. Med. 2023;55:725–734.
    doi: 10.1038/s12276-023-00977-3pmc: PMC10167357pubmed: 37009802google scholar: lookup
  7. Johns I, Bryan J. Diagnosis and Staging of Equine Neoplasia. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2024;40:351–369.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2024.07.002pubmed: 39266415google scholar: lookup
  8. Knottenbelt D.C, Patterson-Kane J.C, Snalune K.L. The challenges and problems of equine oncological practice. 2016;pp. 7–10.
  9. Easley J. A team approach to equine cancer treatment. Equine Vet. Educ. 2019;31:484–485.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.13005google scholar: lookup
  10. Knottenbelt D.C, Patterson-Kane J.C, Snalune K.L. Clinical effects of cancer in horses. 2016;pp. 62–69.
  11. Knottenbelt D.C, Patterson-Kane J.C, Snalune K.L. Principles of diagnosis. 2016;pp. 86–107.
  12. Hill F.W, Moulton J.E, Schiff P.H. Exophthalmos in a horse resulting from an adenocarcinoma of the frontal sinus. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 1989;60:104–105.
    pubmed: 2607529
  13. Naylor R.J, Dunkel B, Dyson S, Paz-Penuelas M.P, Dobson J. A retrobulbar meningioma as a cause of unilateral exophthalmos and blindness in a horse. Equine Vet. Educ. 2010;22:503–510.
    doi: 10.1111/j.0957-7734.2010.00112.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  14. Kaps S, Richter M, Philipp M, Bart M, Eule C, Spiess B.M. Primary invasive ocular squamous cell carcinoma in a horse. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2005;8:193–197.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2005.00358.xpubmed: 15910373google scholar: lookup
  15. Scherrer N.M, Lassaline M, Engiles J. Ocular and periocular hemangiosarcoma in six horses. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2018;21:432–437.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12529pubmed: 29111617google scholar: lookup
  16. Kafarnik C, Rawlings M, Dubielzig R.R. Corneal stromal invasive squamous cell carcinoma: A retrospective morphological description in 10 horses.. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2009;12:6–12.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2009.00666.xpubmed: 19152592google scholar: lookup
  17. McMullen R.J., Clode A.B., Pandiri A.K.R., Malarkey D.E., Michau T.M., Gilger B.C.. Epibulbar melanoma in a foal.. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2008;11((Suppl. 1)):44–50.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2008.00637.xpmc: PMC3175607pubmed: 19046269google scholar: lookup
  18. Knottenbelt D.C., Patterson-Kane J.C., Snalune K.L.. Tumour nomenclature. 2016;pp. 11–22.
  19. Cullen J.M., Breen M. An Overview of Molecular Cancer Pathogenesis, Prognosis, and Diagnosis. 2016;pp. 1–26.
  20. Avallone G., Rasotto R., Chambers J.K., Miller A.D., Behling-Kelly E., Monti P., Berlato D., Valenti P., Roccabianca P.. Review of Histological Grading Systems in Veterinary Medicine.. Vet. Pathol. 2021;58:809–828.
    doi: 10.1177/0300985821999831pubmed: 33769136google scholar: lookup
  21. Klostermann E., Colitz C.M.H., Chandler H.L., Kusewitt D.F., Saville W.J.A., Dubielzig R.R. Immunohistochemical properties of ocular adenomas, adenocarcinomas and medulloepitheliomas.. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2006;9:387–394.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2006.00478.xpubmed: 17076871google scholar: lookup
  22. Gould J., Wells M., Linde Henriksen M.d., Gilger B.C.. Causes, treatment, and outcome of hyphema, fibrin, and vitreal hemorrhage in horses: 219 cases (2012–2023). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2024;262:S94–S101.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.24.04.0258pubmed: 39047776google scholar: lookup
  23. Knottenbelt D.C., Patterson-Kane J.C., Snalune K.L.. Internal ocular neoplasms. 2016;pp. 372–375.
  24. Gilger B.C., Degroote R., Deeg C. Diseases of the Uvea, Uveitis, and Recurrent Uveitis. 2022;pp. 441–498.
  25. Eagle R.C., Font R.L., Swerczek T.W.. Malignant medulloepithelioma of the optic nerve in a horse.. Vet. Pathol. 1978;15:488–494.
    doi: 10.1177/030098587801500406pubmed: 695223google scholar: lookup
  26. Monk C.S., Craft W.F., Abbott J.R., Farina L.L., Reuss S.M., Czerwinski S.L., Brooks D.E., Plummer C.E.. Clinical behavior of intraocular teratoid medulloepithelioma in two-related Quarter Horses.. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2017;20:551–559.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12409pubmed: 27440405google scholar: lookup
  27. Silva M.O., Coelho L.C.T., Vidal A.P., Teixeira C.A., Ribeiro G.H.S., Melo N.C.d., Fantini P.. Non-teratoid ocular medulloepithelioma in an adult horse.. Cienc. Rural. 2021;51:e20200001.
    doi: 10.1590/0103-8478cr20200001google scholar: lookup
  28. van Bergen T., Vries C.d., Ducatelle R., Martens A., Gasthuys F.. Rapidly growing primary malignant teratoid medulloepithelioma of the ciliary body in a gelding.. Vet. Record Case Rep. 2014;2:e000072.
    doi: 10.1136/vetreccr-2014-000072google scholar: lookup
  29. Davidson H.J., Blanchard G.L., Wheeler C.A., Render J.A.. Anterior uveal melanoma, with secondary keratitis, cataract, and glaucoma, in a horse.. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1991;199:1049–1050.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.1991.199.08.1049pubmed: 1748609google scholar: lookup
  30. Grahn B.H., Pfeiffer R.L.. Veterinary Ophthalmic Pathology. 2021;pp. 479–563.
  31. Knottenbelt D.C., Patterson-Kane J.C., Snalune K.L.. Clinical Equine Oncology. 1st ed. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2016. Biology of Tumor Growth; pp. 24–61.
  32. Iorio M.V., Croce C.M.. MicroRNA dysregulation in cancer: Diagnostics, monitoring and therapeutics. A comprehensive review.. EMBO Mol. Med. 2012;4:143–159.
    doi: 10.1002/emmm.201100209pmc: PMC3376845pubmed: 22351564google scholar: lookup
  33. Wang M., Zhao J., Zhang L., Wei F., Lian Y., Wu Y., Gong Z., Zhang S., Zhou J., Cao K.. Role of tumor microenvironment in tumorigenesis.. J. Cancer. 2017;8:761–773.
    doi: 10.7150/jca.17648pmc: PMC5381164pubmed: 28382138google scholar: lookup
  34. Kreisle R.A., Ershler W.B.. Investigation of tumor angiogenesis in an id mouse model: Role of host-tumor interactions.. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 1988;80:849–854.
    doi: 10.1093/jnci/80.11.849pubmed: 2455811google scholar: lookup
  35. Le Bitoux M.-A., Stamenkovic I.. Tumor-host interactions: The role of inflammation.. Histochem. Cell Biol. 2008;130:1079–1090.
    doi: 10.1007/s00418-008-0527-3pubmed: 18953558google scholar: lookup
  36. McKenna K.C., Chen P.W.. Influence of immune privilege on ocular tumor development.. Ocul. Immunol. Inflamm. 2010;18:80–90.
    doi: 10.3109/09273941003669950pmc: PMC3164502pubmed: 20370332google scholar: lookup
  37. Niederkorn J.Y.. Immune escape mechanisms of intraocular tumors.. Prog. Retin. Eye Res. 2009;28:329–347.
    doi: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2009.06.002pmc: PMC2727063pubmed: 19563908google scholar: lookup
  38. Bistner S., Campbell R.J., Shaw D., Leininger J.R., Ghobrial H.K.. Neuroepithelial tumor of the optic nerve in a horse.. Cornell Vet. 1983;73:30–40.
    pubmed: 6825451
  39. Lavach J.D.. Ocular manifestations of systemic diseases.. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 1992;8:627–636.
    doi: 10.1016/s0749-0739(17)30445-5pubmed: 1458333google scholar: lookup
  40. Stieler Stewart A., Wotman K.L., Martabano B.B., Davis J.L.. Ocular Manifestations of Systemic Disease.. In: Gilger B.C., editor. Equine Ophthalmology. 4th ed. Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2022. pp. 762–763.
  41. Bradley A.E., Pirie R.S., MacIntyre N.. Thyroid carcinoma with multiple metastases in a horse.. Equine Vet. Educ. 2000;12:170–174.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2000.tb00036.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  42. Rebhun W.C., Del Piero F.. Ocular lesions in horses with lymphosarcoma: 21 cases (1977–1997). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1998;212:852–854.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.1998.212.06.852pubmed: 9530426google scholar: lookup
  43. Matheis F.L., Birkmann K., Ruetten M., Pot S.A., Spiess B.M.. Ocular manifestations of a metastatic adenocarcinoma in a horse.. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2013;16:214–218.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2012.01042.xpubmed: 22762537google scholar: lookup
  44. Trope G.D., McCowan C.I., Tyrrell D., Lording P.M., Maggs D.J.. Solitary (primary) uveal T-cell lymphoma in a horse.. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2014;17:139–145.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12078pubmed: 23802547google scholar: lookup
  45. Gerding J.C., Gilger B.C., Montgomery S.A., Clode A.B.. Presumed primary ocular lymphangiosarcoma with metastasis in a miniature horse.. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2015;18:502–509.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12249pubmed: 25581559google scholar: lookup
  46. Brocca G., Centelleghe C., Padoan E., Stoppini R., Giudice C., Castagnaro M., Zappulli V.. Case Report of a Mare Diagnosed with a Metastatic Mammary Carcinoma after the Excision of a Recurrent Intraocular Neuroepithelial Tumor.. Animals 2020;10:2409.
    doi: 10.3390/ani10122409pmc: PMC7765899pubmed: 33339329google scholar: lookup
  47. Drozdzewska K., Gehlen H.. Markers for internal neoplasia in the horse.. Vet. Med. Sci. 2023;9:132–143.
    doi: 10.1002/vms3.1042pmc: PMC9857019pubmed: 36495211google scholar: lookup
  48. Labelle A.L., Gemensky Metzler A.M., McMullen R.J., Wiggans K.T., Labelle P., Hamor R.E.. Equine intraocular melanocytic neoplasia.. Can. Vet. J. 2024;65:1048–1054.
    pmc: PMC11411471pubmed: 39355695
  49. Saunders L.Z., Barron C.N.. Primary pigmented intraocular tumors in animals.. Cancer Res. 1958;18:234–245.
    pubmed: 13511383
  50. Stoppini R., Gilger B.C.. Equine ocular examination basic techniques.. In: Gilger B.C., editor. Equine Ophthalmology. Wiley; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2016. pp. 1–39.
  51. Szymanski C.M.. Malignant teratoid medulloepithelioma in a horse.. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 1987;190:301–302.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.1987.190.03.301pubmed: 3558068google scholar: lookup
  52. Knottenbelt D.C., Hetzel U., Roberts V.. Primary intraocular primitive neuroectodermal tumor (retinoblastoma) causing unilateral blindness in a gelding.. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2007;10:348–356.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2007.00567.xpubmed: 17970995google scholar: lookup
  53. Leiva M., Felici F., Carvalho A., Ramis A., Peña T.. Benign intraocular teratoid medulloepithelioma causing glaucoma in an 11-year-old Arabian mare.. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2013;16:297–302.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2012.01067.xpubmed: 23025750google scholar: lookup
  54. Riis R.C., Scherlie P.H., Rebhun W.C.. Intraocular medulloepithelioma in a horse.. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 1990;22:66–68.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1990.tb04715.xpubmed: 9079121google scholar: lookup
  55. Murphy J., Young S.. Intraocular melanoma in a horse.. Vet. Pathol. 1979;16:539–542.
    doi: 10.1177/030098587901600505pubmed: 473483google scholar: lookup
  56. Bistner S.I.. Medullo-epithelioma of the iris and ciliary body in a horse.. Cornell Vet. 1974;64:588–595.
    pubmed: 4430185
  57. Scotty N.C., Barrie K.B., Brooks D.E., Taylor D.. Surgical management of a progressive iris melanocytoma in a Mustang.. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2008;11:75–80.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1463-5224.2008.00603.xpubmed: 18302571google scholar: lookup
  58. Matthews A.G., Barry D.R.. Bilateral melanoma of the iris in a horse.. Equine Vet. J. 1987;19:358–360.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1987.tb01434.xpubmed: 3622469google scholar: lookup
  59. Ramadan R.O.. Primary ocular melanoma in a young horse.. Equine Vet. J. 1975;7:49–50.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1975.tb03229.xpubmed: 1116496google scholar: lookup
  60. Barnett K.C., Platt H.. Intraocular melanomata in the horse.. Equine Vet. J. Suppl. 1990;22:76–82.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1990.tb04718.xpubmed: 9079124google scholar: lookup
  61. Gelatt K.N., Leipold H.W., Finocchio E.J., Coffmn J.R.. Optic disc astrocytoma in a horse.. Can. Vet. J. 1971;12:53–55.
    pmc: PMC1695236pubmed: 5103060
  62. Broughton W.L., Zimmerman L.E.. A clinicopathologic study of 56 cases of intraocular medulloepitheliomas.. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 1978;85:407–418.
    doi: 10.1016/S0002-9394(14)77739-6pubmed: 655220google scholar: lookup
  63. Bentley E., Pizzirani S., Waller K.R.. Diagnostic Ophthalmic Ultrasound.. In: Gelatt K.N., editor. Veterinary Ophthalmology. 6th ed. Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2021. pp. 733–756.
  64. Ledbetter E.C., Porter I.R.. Advanced Ophthalmic Imaging in the Horse.. In: Gilger B.C., editor. Equine Ophthalmology. Wiley; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2022. pp. 90–132.
  65. Gialletti R.. Equine Ocular Ultrasonography.. In: Kidd J.A., Lu K.G., Frazer M.L., editors. Atlas of Equine Ultrasonography. Wiley; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2022. pp. 481–509.
  66. Ramirez S., Tucker R.L.. Ophthalmic imaging.. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2004;20:441–457.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2004.04.004pubmed: 15271433google scholar: lookup
  67. McMullen R.J.. Advancements in equine ophthalmic imaging enhance understanding of ocular and orbital anatomy and disease in standing sedated horses.. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2024;262:S47–S56.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.24.06.0376pubmed: 39454619google scholar: lookup
  68. Donaldson D., Hartley C.. Ocular Imaging.. In: Gelatt K.N., editor. Veterinary Ophthalmology. 6th ed. Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2021. pp. 662–732.
  69. Tucker R.L., Farrell E.. Computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging of the equine head.. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2001;17:131–144.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30079-2pubmed: 11488040google scholar: lookup
  70. Stieger-Vanegas S.M., Hanna A.L.. The Role of Computed Tomography in Imaging Non-neurologic Disorders of the Head in Equine Patients.. Front. Vet. Sci. 2022;9:798216.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.798216pmc: PMC8936190pubmed: 35321060google scholar: lookup
  71. Matiasek K., Cronau M., Schmahl W., Gerhards H.. Imaging features and decision making in retrobulbar neuroendocrine tumours in horses–case report and review of literature.. J. Vet. Med. A Physiol. Pathol. Clin. Med. 2007;54:302–306.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0442.2007.00955.xpubmed: 17650150google scholar: lookup
  72. Dakin S.G., Lam R., Rees E., Mumby C., West C., Weller R.. Technical set-up and radiation exposure for standing computed tomography of the equine head.. Equine Vet. Educ. 2014;26:208–215.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12127google scholar: lookup
  73. Gremillet B., Vandersmissen M., Dancot M., Evrard L., Charles A., Busoni V.. Ultrasonographic technique and appearance of presumptively normal clinically relevant lymph nodes in horses.. Equine Vet. Educ. 2024;36:253–262.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.13872google scholar: lookup
  74. Scotty N.C.. Ocular Ultrasonography in Horses.. Clin. Tech. Equine Pract. 2005;4:106–113.
    doi: 10.1053/j.ctep.2005.03.007google scholar: lookup
  75. Bentley E., Miller P.E., Diehl K.A.. Use of high-resolution ultrasound as a diagnostic tool in veterinary ophthalmology.. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 2003;223:1617–1622.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2003.223.1617pubmed: 14664449google scholar: lookup
  76. Gilger B.C.. Advanced Imaging of the Equine Eye.. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2017;33:607–626.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2017.07.006pubmed: 28985984google scholar: lookup
  77. Yitbarek D., Dagnaw G.G.. Application of Advanced Imaging Modalities in Veterinary Medicine: A Review.. Vet. Med. 2022;13:117–130.
    doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S367040pmc: PMC9166686pubmed: 35669942google scholar: lookup
  78. Pinto N.I., Gilger B.C.. Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography evaluation of the cornea, retina, and optic nerve in normal horses.. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2014;17((Suppl. 1)):140–148.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12180pubmed: 24824940google scholar: lookup
  79. Fujimoto J., Drexler W.. Introduction to Optical Coherence Tomography.. In: Greenbaum E., Drexler W., Fujimoto J.G., editors. Optical Coherence Tomography. Springer; Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany: 2008. pp. 1–45.
  80. Blanchard A., Barr E.M., Gilger B.C.. Evaluation of equine corneal disease using spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). Vet. Ophthalmol. 2019;22:791–798.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12652pubmed: 30767400google scholar: lookup
  81. Fischer B.M., McMullen R.J., Reese S., Brehm W.. Intravitreal injection of low-dose gentamicin for the treatment of recurrent or persistent uveitis in horses: Preliminary results. BMC Vet. Res. 2019;15:29.
    doi: 10.1186/s12917-018-1722-7pmc: PMC6335700pubmed: 30651102google scholar: lookup
  82. Conduit S., Bowen M., Hallowell G., Pereira R., Rapezzano G., Redpath A.. Transcorneal aspiration for management of primary iris cysts in the standing horse. Vet. Med. Sci. 2024;10:e1570.
    doi: 10.1002/vms3.1570pmc: PMC11288182pubmed: 39078405google scholar: lookup
  83. Tuntivanich N., Tiawsirisup S., Tuntivanich P.. Success of Anterior Chamber Paracentesis as a Treatment for Ocular Setariasis in Equine Eye: Case Report. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2011;31:8–12.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2010.11.017google scholar: lookup
  84. Flores M.M., Del Piero F., Habecker P.L., Langohr I.M.. A retrospective histologic study of 140 cases of clinically significant equine ocular disorders. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 2020;32:382–388.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638720912698pmc: PMC7377627pubmed: 32207378google scholar: lookup
  85. Augsburger J.J., Shields J.A., Folberg R., Lang W., O’Hara B.J., Claricci J.D.. Fine needle aspiration biopsy in the diagnosis of intraocular cancer. Cytologic-histologic correlations. Ophthalmology 1985;92:39–49.
    doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(85)34068-Xpubmed: 3974994google scholar: lookup
  86. Bechrakis N.E., Foerster M.H., Bornfeld N.. Biopsy in indeterminate intraocular tumors. Ophthalmology 2002;109:235–242.
    doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(01)00931-9pubmed: 11825801google scholar: lookup
  87. Chauhan K., Singh A., Raval V.. Intraocular Tumor Biopsy. Semin. Ophthalmol. 2025:1–8.
    doi: 10.1080/08820538.2025.2484228pubmed: 40133230google scholar: lookup
  88. Jakobiec F.A., Coleman D.J., Chattock A., Smith M.. Ultrasonically guided needle biopsy and cytologic diagnosis of solid intraocular tumors. Ophthalmology 1979;86:1662–1681.
    doi: 10.1016/S0161-6420(79)35349-0pubmed: 551354google scholar: lookup
  89. Rishi P., Dhami A., Biswas J.. Biopsy techniques for intraocular tumors. Indian J. Ophthalmol. 2016;64:415–421.
    doi: 10.4103/0301-4738.187652pmc: PMC4991162pubmed: 27488148google scholar: lookup
  90. Beckwith-Cohen B., Bentley E., Dubielzig R.R.. Outcome of iridociliary epithelial tumour biopsies in dogs: A retrospective study. Vet. Rec. 2015;176:147.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.102638pubmed: 25319595google scholar: lookup
  91. Kulbay M., Tuli N., Mazza M., Jaffer A., Juntipwong S., Marcotte E., Tanya S.M., Nguyen A.X.-L., Burnier M.N., Demirci H.. Oncolytic Viruses and Immunotherapy for the Treatment of Uveal Melanoma and Retinoblastoma: The Current Landscape and Novel Advances. Biomedicines 2025;13:108.
    doi: 10.3390/biomedicines13010108pmc: PMC11762644pubmed: 39857692google scholar: lookup
  92. Martabano B.B., Brooks D.E., Whitley R.D., Proietto L.R., Conway J.A., Zoll W.M., Plummer C.E.. Recurrent adnexal lymphoma in a horse. Equine Vet. Educ. 2019;31:203–207.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12850google scholar: lookup
  93. Wang L., Unger L., Sharif H., Eriksson S., Gerber V., Rönnberg H.. Molecular characterization of equine thymidine kinase 1 and preliminary evaluation of its suitability as a serum biomarker for equine lymphoma. BMC Mol. Cell Biol. 2021;22:59.
    doi: 10.1186/s12860-021-00399-xpmc: PMC8670147pubmed: 34906077google scholar: lookup
  94. Zhou J., He E., Skog S.. The proliferation marker thymidine kinase 1 in clinical use. Mol. Clin. Oncol. 2013;1:18–28.
    doi: 10.3892/mco.2012.19pmc: PMC3956229pubmed: 24649117google scholar: lookup
  95. Drozdzewska K., Burde S., Müller E., Merle R., Gehlen H.. Measurement of thymidine kinase-1 activity in serum and body cavity fluids in horses with lymphoma, inflammatory bowel disease and other non-inflammatory gastrointestinal disorders; Proceedings of the ECEIM Congress; Copenhagen, Denmark. 14–16 November 2024.
  96. Ensink J.M.. Why clinicians should consider tumour staging and grading in horses. Equine Vet. J. 2015;47:141.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12398pubmed: 25644767google scholar: lookup
  97. Unger L., Abril C., Gerber V., Jagannathan V., Koch C., Hamza E.. Diagnostic potential of three serum microRNAs as biomarkers for equine sarcoid disease in horses and donkeys. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2021;35:610–619.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.16027pmc: PMC7848377pubmed: 33415768google scholar: lookup
  98. Unger L., Gerber V., Pacholewska A., Leeb T., Jagannathan V.. MicroRNA fingerprints in serum and whole blood of sarcoid-affected horses as potential non-invasive diagnostic biomarkers. Vet. Comp. Oncol. 2019;17:107–117.
    doi: 10.1111/vco.12451pubmed: 30430738google scholar: lookup
  99. Linde Henriksen M.d., Sharkey L.C.. Ocular Cytology of the Horse. In: Sharkey L.C., Radin M.J., Seelig D., editors. Veterinary Cytology. Wiley; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2020. pp. 222–240.
  100. Johns I.. Ultrasonography as an aid to the antemortem diagnosis of internal neoplasia in the horse. Equine Vet. Educ. 2024;36:128–130.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.13902google scholar: lookup
  101. Silva L.C.L., Zoppa A.L., Hendrickson D.A.. Equine Diagnostic Laparoscopy. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2008;28:247–254.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2008.02.002google scholar: lookup
  102. Bertoletti A., Hendrickson D.A.. Laparoscopic Diagnostic Techniques. In: Ragle C.A., editor. Advances in Equine Laparoscopy. Wiley; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2024. pp. 91–111.
  103. Peroni J.. Equine Thoracoscopy. In: Ragle C.A., editor. Advances in Equine Laparoscopy. Wiley; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2024. pp. 301–309.
  104. Meekins J.M., Rankin A.J., Samuelson D.A.. Ophthalmic Anatomy. In: Gelatt K.N., editor. Veterinary Ophthalmology. 6th ed. Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2021. pp. 41–123.
  105. Dubielzig R.R., Ketring K., McLellan G.J., Albert D.M.. Veterinary Ocular Pathology: A Comparative Review. Saunders; Edinburgh, UK: New York, NY, USA: 2010.
  106. Ueda Y., Senba H., Nishimura T., Usui T., Tanaka K., Inagaki S.. Ocular medulloepithelioma in a thoroughbred. Equine Vet. J. 1993;25:558–561.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1993.tb03017.xpubmed: 8276010google scholar: lookup
  107. Pimenta J., Prada J., Cotovio M.. Equine Melanocytic Tumors: A Narrative Review. Animals 2023;13:247.
    doi: 10.3390/ani13020247pmc: PMC9855132pubmed: 36670786google scholar: lookup
  108. Romero B.F., Iglesis García M., Gil Molino M., Gómez L., Galapero J., Parejo C., Martín Cuervo M.. Bilateral Uveitis in a Horse With a Renal Carcinoma. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2022;118:104111.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2022.104111pubmed: 36031033google scholar: lookup
  109. He J., Pei C., Ge X., Ma J.-M., Hu Y.-G.. Analysis of clinical and pathological features of ciliary body medulloepithelioma. Int. J. Ophthalmol. 2023;16:382–387.
    doi: 10.18240/ijo.2023.03.08pmc: PMC10009588pubmed: 36935787google scholar: lookup
  110. Yi X., Meng F., Bi Y., He L., Qian J., Xue K.. Intraocular medulloepithelioma clinical features and management of 11 cases. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2024;108:566–570.
    doi: 10.1136/bjo-2022-322449pubmed: 36997291google scholar: lookup
  111. Latimer C.A., Wyman M.. Sector iridectomy in the management of iris melanoma in a horse. Equine Vet. J. 1983;15:101–104.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1983.tb04569.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  112. Cook C.S., Wilkie D.A.. Treatment of presumed iris melanoma in dogs by diode laser photocoagulation: 23 cases. Vet. Ophthalmol. 1999;2:217–225.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1463-5224.1999.00085.xpubmed: 11397269google scholar: lookup
  113. Lerner A.B., Cage G.W.. Melanomas in horses. Yale J. Biol. Med. 1973;46:646–649.
    pmc: PMC2592037pubmed: 4779136
  114. Kulbay M., Marcotte E., Remtulla R., Lau T.H.A., Paez-Escamilla M., Wu K.Y., Burnier M.N.. Uveal Melanoma: Comprehensive Review of Its Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Future Perspectives. Biomedicines 2024;12:1758.
    doi: 10.3390/biomedicines12081758pmc: PMC11352094pubmed: 39200222google scholar: lookup
  115. Alshammari A.H., Oshiro T., Ungkulpasvich U., Yamaguchi J., Morishita M., Khdair S.A., Hatakeyama H., Hirotsu T., Di Luccio E.. Advancing Veterinary Oncology: Next-Generation Diagnostics for Early Cancer Detection and Clinical Implementation. Animals 2025;15:389.
    doi: 10.3390/ani15030389pmc: PMC11816279pubmed: 39943159google scholar: lookup
  116. Petrucci G.N., Magalhães T.R., Dias M., Queiroga F.L.. Metronomic chemotherapy: Bridging theory to clinical application in canine and feline oncology. Front. Vet. Sci. 2024;11:1397376.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1397376pmc: PMC11187343pubmed: 38903691google scholar: lookup
  117. Chavalle T., Chamel G., Denoeux P., Lajoinie M., Sayag D., Berny P., Ponce F.. Are severe adverse events commonly observed in dogs during cancer chemotherapy? A retrospective study on 155 dogs. Vet. Comp. Oncol. 2022;20:393–403.
    doi: 10.1111/vco.12782pubmed: 34775666google scholar: lookup
  118. Gelatt K.N., Gelatt J.P., Plummer C.E.. Veterinary Ophthalmic Surgery. 2nd ed. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2022. Equine Ophthalmic Surgery; pp. 365–370.
  119. Gelatt K.N., Gelatt J.P., Plummer C.E.. Veterinary Ophthalmic Surgery. 2nd ed. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2022. Surgical Procedures of the Anterior Chamber and Anterior Uvea; pp. 232–255.
  120. Hendrix D.V.. Diseases and Surgery of the Canine Anterior Uvea. In: Gelatt K.N., editor. Veterinary Ophthalmology. 6th ed. Wiley & Sons, Inc.; Hoboken, NJ, USA: 2021. pp. 1259–1316.
  121. Singaravelu J., Moreno A.M., Wrenn J.M., Singh A.D.. Iris Melanoma: Advanced Surgical Techniques. In: Chawla B.V., Aronow M.E., editors. Global Perspectives in Ocular Oncology. Springer International Publishing; Cham, Switzerland: 2022. pp. 257–265.
  122. Davis R.L., Reilly C.M., Moore P.A.. Surgical excision of iridociliary tumors using a postero-anterior cyclo-iridectomy and thermocautery in two dogs. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2020;23:579–587.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12755pubmed: 32237209google scholar: lookup
  123. Guerra Guimarães T., Menezes Cardoso K., Tralhão P., Marto C.M., Alexandre N., Botelho M.F., Laranjo M.. Current Therapeutics and Future Perspectives to Ocular Melanocytic Neoplasms in Dogs and Cats. Bioengineering 2021;8:225.
    doi: 10.3390/bioengineering8120225pmc: PMC8698280pubmed: 34940378google scholar: lookup
  124. Mair T.S., Walmsley J.P., Phillips T.J.. Surgical treatment of 45 horses affected by squamous cell carcinoma of the penis and prepuce. Equine Vet. J. 2000;32:406–410.
    doi: 10.2746/042516400777591093pubmed: 11037262google scholar: lookup
  125. van den Top J.G.B., Heer N.d., Klein W.R., Ensink J.M.. Penile and preputial squamous cell carcinoma in the horse: A retrospective study of treatment of 77 affected horses. Equine Vet. J. 2008;40:533–537.
    doi: 10.2746/042516408X281171pubmed: 18487102google scholar: lookup
  126. Malalana F.. Chemotherapeutics in Equine Practice. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract. 2024;40:387–395.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2024.07.004pubmed: 39155164google scholar: lookup
  127. Mair T.S., Couto C.G.. The use of cytotoxic drugs in equine practice. Equine Vet. Educ. 2006;18:149–156.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2006.tb00436.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  128. Wustefeld-Janssens B., Smith L., Wilson-Robles H.. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy in veterinary cancer treatment: A review. J. Small Anim. Pract. 2021;62:237–243.
    doi: 10.1111/jsap.13245pubmed: 33305431google scholar: lookup
  129. Fiorentzis M., Viestenz A., Siebolts U., Seitz B., Coupland S.E., Heinzelmann J.. The Potential Use of Electrochemotherapy in the Treatment of Uveal Melanoma: In Vitro Results in 3D Tumor Cultures and In Vivo Results in a Chick Embryo Model. Cancers 2019;11:1344.
    doi: 10.3390/cancers11091344pmc: PMC6769976pubmed: 31514412google scholar: lookup
  130. Larsen M.M.E., Eriksson A., Impellizeri J.A.. Electrochemotherapy with bleomycin for bilateral ocular squamous cell carcinoma in a horse. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2024;5:886–892.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.13310pubmed: 39681541google scholar: lookup
  131. Luethy D., Frimberger A.E., Bedenice D., Byrne B.S., Groover E.S., Gardner R.B., Lewis T., MacDonald V.S., Proctor-Brown L., Tomlinson J.E.. Retrospective evaluation of clinical outcome after chemotherapy for lymphoma in 15 equids (1991–2017). J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2019;33:953–960.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.15411pmc: PMC6430950pubmed: 30636061google scholar: lookup
  132. Tamzali Y., Borde L., Rols M.P., Golzio M., Lyazrhi F., Teissie J.. Successful treatment of equine sarcoids with cisplatin electrochemotherapy: A retrospective study of 48 cases. Equine Vet. J. 2012;44:214–220.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2011.00425.xpubmed: 21793876google scholar: lookup
  133. Tozon N., Kramaric P., Kos Kadunc V., Sersa G., Cemazar M.. Electrochemotherapy as a single or adjuvant treatment to surgery of cutaneous sarcoid tumours in horses: A 31-case retrospective study. Vet. Rec. 2016;179:627.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.103867pubmed: 27758950google scholar: lookup
  134. Seth R.K., Abedi G., Daccache A.J., Tsai J.C.. Cataract secondary to electrical shock from a Taser gun. J. Cataract Refract. Surg. 2007;33:1664–1665.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jcrs.2007.04.037pubmed: 17720092google scholar: lookup
  135. Kaergaard A., Nielsen K.J., Carstensen O., Biering K.. Electrical injury and the long-term risk of cataract: A prospective matched cohort study. Acta Ophthalmol. 2023;101:e88–e94.
    doi: 10.1111/aos.15220pmc: PMC10086943pubmed: 35894089google scholar: lookup
  136. Reddy S.C.. Electric cataract: A case report and review of the literature. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. 1999;9:134–138.
    doi: 10.1177/112067219900900211pubmed: 10435427google scholar: lookup
  137. Desai N.C., Green E.M.. Equine external beam radiation therapy: Techniques and challenges. Equine Vet. Educ. 2020;32:84–89.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12943google scholar: lookup
  138. Henson F.M.D., Dobson J.M.. Use of radiation therapy in the treatment of equine neoplasia. Equine Vet. Educ. 2004;16:315–318.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2004.tb00319.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  139. Nolan M.W., Gieger T.L.. Update in Veterinary Radiation Oncology: Focus on Stereotactic Radiation Therapy. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract. 2024;54:559–575.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2023.12.009pubmed: 38160099google scholar: lookup
  140. Gillen A., Mudge M., Caldwell F., Munsterman A., Hanson R., Brawner W., Almond G., Green E., Stephens J., Walz J.. Outcome of external beam radiotherapy for treatment of noncutaneous tumors of the head in horses: 32 cases (1999–2015). J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2020;34:2808–2816.
    doi: 10.1111/jvim.15954pmc: PMC7694842pubmed: 33165966google scholar: lookup
  141. Gieger T.L.. Radiation Therapy for Brain Tumors in Dogs and Cats. Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract. 2025;55:67–80.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cvsm.2024.07.007pubmed: 39393930google scholar: lookup
  142. Bley C.R., Sumova A., Roos M., Kaser-Hotz B.. Irradiation of Brain Tumors in Dogs with Neurologic Disease. J. Vet. Intern. Med. 2005;19:849–854.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2005.tb02776.xpubmed: 16355679google scholar: lookup
  143. Keyerleber M.A., McEntee M.C., Farrelly J., Thompson M.S., Scrivani P.V., Dewey C.W.. Three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy alone or in combination with surgery for treatment of canine intracranial meningiomas. Vet. Comp. Oncol. 2015;13:385–397.
    doi: 10.1111/vco.12054pubmed: 23869984google scholar: lookup
  144. Widesott L., Lorentini S., Fracchiolla F., Farace P., Schwarz M.. Improvements in pencil beam scanning proton therapy dose calculation accuracy in brain tumor cases with a commercial Monte Carlo algorithm. Phys. Med. Biol. 2018;63:145016.
    doi: 10.1088/1361-6560/aac279pubmed: 29726402google scholar: lookup
  145. Hollis A.R.. Radiotherapy for the treatment of periocular tumours in the horse. Equine Vet. Educ. 2019;31:647–652.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12817google scholar: lookup
  146. Moore C.P., Corwin L.A., Collier L.L.. Keratopathy induced by beta radiation therapy in a horse. Equine Vet. J. 1983;15:112–116.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1983.tb04572.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  147. Wolf F., Meier V.S., Pot S.A., Rohrer Bley C.. Ocular and periocular radiation toxicity in dogs treated for sinonasal tumors: A critical review. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2020;23:596–610.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12761pmc: PMC7496316pubmed: 32281234google scholar: lookup
  148. Seltenhammer M.H., Heere-Ress E., Brandt S., Druml T., Jansen B., Pehamberger H., Niebauer G.W.. Comparative histopathology of grey-horse-melanoma and human malignant melanoma. Pigment Cell Res. 2004;17:674–681.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0749.2004.00192.xpubmed: 15541026google scholar: lookup
  149. Wong K., van der Weyden L., Schott C.R., Foote A., Constantino-Casas F., Smith S., Dobson J.M., Murchison E.P., Wu H., Yeh I.. Cross-species genomic landscape comparison of human mucosal melanoma with canine oral and equine melanoma. Nat. Commun. 2019;10:353.
    doi: 10.1038/s41467-018-08081-1pmc: PMC6341101pubmed: 30664638google scholar: lookup
  150. Uner O.E., Gandrakota N., Azarcon C.P., Grossniklaus H.E.. Animal Models of Uveal Melanoma. Ann. Eye Sci. 2022;7.
    doi: 10.21037/aes-21-30pmc: PMC8959478pubmed: 35350473google scholar: lookup
  151. Stei M.M., Loeffler K.U., Holz F.G., Herwig M.C.. Animal Models of Uveal Melanoma: Methods, Applicability, and Limitations. BioMed Res. Int. 2016;2016:4521807.
    doi: 10.1155/2016/4521807pmc: PMC4913058pubmed: 27366747google scholar: lookup
  152. Yu F.-X., Luo J., Mo J.-S., Liu G., Kim Y.C., Meng Z., Zhao L., Peyman G., Ouyang H., Jiang W.. Mutant Gq/11 promote uveal melanoma tumorigenesis by activating YAP. Cancer Cell. 2014;25:822–830.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ccr.2014.04.017pmc: PMC4075337pubmed: 24882516google scholar: lookup
  153. Pan H., Ni H., Zhang L., Xing Y., Fan J., Li P., Li T., Jia R., Ge S., Zhang H.. P2RX7-V3 is a novel oncogene that promotes tumorigenesis in uveal melanoma. Tumour Biol. 2016;37:13533–13543.
    doi: 10.1007/s13277-016-5141-8pubmed: 27468714google scholar: lookup
  154. Katopodis P., Khalifa M.S., Anikin V.. Molecular characteristics of uveal melanoma and intraocular tumors. Oncol. Lett. 2021;21:9.
    doi: 10.3892/ol.2020.12270pmc: PMC7681201pubmed: 33240415google scholar: lookup
  155. Pinto C., Aluai-Cunha C., Santos A.. The human and animals’ malignant melanoma: Comparative tumor models and the role of microbiome in dogs and humans. Melanoma Res. 2023;33:87–103.
    doi: 10.1097/CMR.0000000000000880pubmed: 36662668google scholar: lookup
  156. van der Weyden L., Brenn T., Patton E.E., Wood G.A., Adams D.J.. Spontaneously occurring melanoma in animals and their relevance to human melanoma. J. Pathol. 2020;252:4–21.
    doi: 10.1002/path.5505pmc: PMC7497193pubmed: 32652526google scholar: lookup
  157. Nishiya A.T., Massoco C.O., Felizzola C.R., Perlmann E., Batschinski K., Tedardi M.V., Garcia J.S., Mendonça P.P., Teixeira T.F., Zaidan Dagli M.L.. Comparative Aspects of Canine Melanoma. Vet. Sci. 2016;3:7.
    doi: 10.3390/vetsci3010007pmc: PMC5644618pubmed: 29056717google scholar: lookup
  158. Tsimpaki T., Anastasova R., Liu H., Seitz B., Bechrakis N.E., Berchner-Pfannschmidt U., Kraemer M.M., Fiorentzis M.. Calcium Electroporation versus Electrochemotherapy with Bleomycin in an In Vivo CAM-Based Uveal Melanoma Xenograft Model. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2024;25:938.
    doi: 10.3390/ijms25020938pmc: PMC10815639pubmed: 38256012google scholar: lookup
  159. Heinzelmann J., Hecht S., Vogt A.R., Siebolts U., Kaatzsch P., Viestenz A.. Repetitive Bleomycin-Based Electrochemotherapy Improves Antitumor Effectiveness in 3D Tumor Models of Conjunctival Melanoma. J. Clin. Med. 2023;12:1087.
    doi: 10.3390/jcm12031087pmc: PMC9917688pubmed: 36769736google scholar: lookup
  160. Malho P., Dunn K., Donaldson D., Dubielzig R.R., Birand Z., Starkey M.. Investigation of prognostic indicators for human uveal melanoma as biomarkers of canine uveal melanoma metastasis. J. Small Anim. Pract. 2013;54:584–593.
    doi: 10.1111/jsap.12141pubmed: 24580015google scholar: lookup
  161. Starkey M.P., Compston-Garnett L., Malho P., Dunn K., Dubielzig R.. Metastasis-associated microRNA expression in canine uveal melanoma. Vet. Comp. Oncol. 2018;16:81–89.
    doi: 10.1111/vco.12315pubmed: 28512868google scholar: lookup
  162. Rehman O., Narang S., Nayyar S., Aggarwal P.. Unusual case of intraocular medulloepithelioma in an adult male. Rom. J. Ophthalmol. 2021;65:296–299.
    doi: 10.22336/rjo.2021.61pmc: PMC8697787pubmed: 35036657google scholar: lookup
  163. Regan D.P., Dubielzig R.R., Zeiss C.J., Charles B., Hoy S.S., Ehrhart E.J.. Primary primitive neuroectodermal tumors of the retina and ciliary body in dogs. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2013;16((Suppl. 1)):87–93.
    doi: 10.1111/vop.12056pubmed: 23675855google scholar: lookup
  164. Salih A., Moore D., Giannikaki S., Scurrell E.. Malignant ocular teratoid medulloepithelioma in two cats. J. Comp. Pathol. 2023;201:10–12.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2022.12.007pubmed: 36646033google scholar: lookup
  165. Jensen O.A., Kaarsholm S., Prause J.U., Heegaard S.. Neuroepithelial tumor of the retina in a dog. Vet. Ophthalmol. 2003;6:57–60.
    doi: 10.1046/j.1463-5224.2003.00268.xpubmed: 12641844google scholar: lookup
  166. Cassoux N., Charlotte F., Sastre X., Orbach D., Lehoang P., Desjardins L.. Conservative surgical treatment of medulloepithelioma of the ciliary body. Arch. Ophthalmol. 2010;128:380–381.
    doi: 10.1001/archophthalmol.2009.404pubmed: 20212214google scholar: lookup
  167. Yousef Y.A., Hajja S., AbuRass H., AlJboor M., Nazzal R.M., Nowomiejska K., Haddad H., Sultan I.. Characteristics, management, and outcome of ocular medulloepithelioma: Systematic review of literature and case report. Ophthalmol. J. 2019;4:92–99.
    doi: 10.5603/OJ.2019.0015google scholar: lookup
  168. Tadepalli S.H., Shields C.L., Shields J.A., Honavar S.G.. Intraocular medulloepithelioma—A review of clinical features, DICER 1 mutation, and management. Indian J. Ophthalmol. 2019;67:755–762.
    doi: 10.4103/ijo.IJO_845_19pmc: PMC6552580pubmed: 31124483google scholar: lookup
  169. Stathopoulos C., Gaillard M.-C., Schneider J., Munier F.L.. Successful treatment of ciliary body medulloepithelioma with intraocular melphalan chemotherapy: A case report. BMC Ophthalmol. 2020;20:239.
    doi: 10.1186/s12886-020-01512-ypmc: PMC7302148pubmed: 32552699google scholar: lookup
  170. Kaliki S., Shields C.L., Eagle R.C., Vemuganti G.K., Almeida A., Manjandavida F.P., Mulay K., Honavar S.G., Shields J.A.. Ciliary body medulloepithelioma: Analysis of 41 cases. Ophthalmology. 2013;120:2552–2559.
    doi: 10.1016/j.ophtha.2013.05.015pubmed: 23796765google scholar: lookup
  171. Qu Y., Mu G., Wu Y., Dai X., Zhou F., Xu X., Wang Y., Wei F.. Overexpression of DNA methyltransferases 1, 3a, and 3b significantly correlates with retinoblastoma tumorigenesis. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 2010;134:826–834.
    doi: 10.1309/ajcphgq69fxdfwiipubmed: 20959668google scholar: lookup
  172. Chen M., He H., Cheng H., Zhang G.. EIF4A3-induced hsa_circ_0078136 inhibits the tumorigenesis of retinoblastoma via IL-17 signaling pathway. Int. Ophthalmol. 2024;44:352.
    doi: 10.1007/s10792-024-03276-6pubmed: 39180619google scholar: lookup
  173. Edward D.P., Alkatan H., Rafiq Q., Eberhart C., Al Mesfer S., Ghazi N., Al Safieh L., Kondkar A.A., Abu Amero K.K.. MicroRNA profiling in intraocular medulloepitheliomas. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0121706.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0121706pmc: PMC4373864pubmed: 25807141google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,030 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.