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Topic:Computed Tomography
Computed Tomography (CT) in horses is an advanced imaging technique used to obtain detailed cross-sectional images of equine anatomy. This non-invasive method utilizes X-ray technology combined with computer processing to create detailed images of bones, soft tissues, and other internal structures. CT is particularly useful for diagnosing complex conditions in the head, neck, and limbs of horses, offering enhanced visualization compared to traditional radiography. The technique is valuable for identifying fractures, dental issues, sinus diseases, and other abnormalities. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the applications, advancements, and clinical implications of computed tomography in equine medicine.
Outcome following lag screw fixation of non-C3 carpal slab fractures in horses. To describe clinical features and short- and long-term outcomes of horses treated with lag screw fixation of slab fractures of the radial carpal (Cr), intermediate carpal (Ci), ulnar carpal (Cu), second (C2) or fourth (C4) carpal bones. Methods: Retrospective case study. Methods: Horses (n = 19) treated with lag screw fixation for slab fractures of Cr, Ci, Cu, C2 or C4. Methods: Medical records of patients with carpal slab fractures were reviewed, and those undergoing internal fixation of slab fractures involving Cr, Ci, Cu, C2, or C4 carpal bones from January 2008 to January 2026 were inc...
Optical neuronavigation facilitates transcranial surgical access to the equine pituitary gland. To evaluate the feasibility of an optical neuronavigation-guided transcranial approach to the equine pituitary gland, compare pituitary tissue acquisition using MRI versus CT guidance, and assess an automated tissue resection device versus a standard biopsy needle. Unassigned: 13 equine cadaver heads from horses euthanized for reasons unrelated to the study were used. A fiducial array was secured to the frontal bone before imaging; 7 heads underwent CT, and 6 heads underwent MRI. Images were imported into a neuronavigation system for 3-D reconstruction, surgical planning, and registration. Eig...
Jejunal Perforation Associated With a Horseshoe-Shaped Abdominal Contusion After a Horse Kick: A Case Report. A horseshoe-shaped abdominal contusion after a horse kick may indicate the site of underlying bowel injury. When accompanied by persistent abdominal pain or peritoneal signs, hollow viscus injury should be considered. Contrast-enhanced CT can identify free air and focal bowel abnormalities at the impact site, facilitating timely surgical management.
Mandibular fracture with subsequent sequestrum formation and tooth-root abscess in a 3-year-old mare. A 3-year-old quarter horse cross mare was presented to the Atlantic Veterinary College (Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island) for evaluation of a persistent draining tract on the ventral aspect of the left mandible, associated with a previous fracture. Radiography and ultrasonography confirmed the presence of a chronic sequestrum separated from the parent bone. Sequestrectomy and surgical debridement of the mandible were carried out, and the horse was discharged. Three months later, the mare was presented again to the Atlantic Veterinary College, as the draining tract had not resolved. A CT sca...
Effect of volume for injection of the 15th to 16th thoracic interspinous space: An ex vivo study. Impinging (overriding) spinous processes (ISPs) are commonly identified in horses with back pain. Diagnostic analgesia is widely used as the clinical reference standard for confirming association with clinical signs of back pain, but the specificity of dorsal spinous region diagnostic analgesia remains poorly understood. Objective: To evaluate the specificity of a midline thoracic interspinous space injection in cadaveric horses using three injectate volumes, assessed by computed tomography (CT) and anatomical dissection. Methods: Ex vivo experimental study. Methods: The T15-T16 interspinous s...
Unveiling Equine Pathologies from an Iron Age Ritual Deposit: Health, Management and Biomechanical Stress in the Protohistoric Horses of Casas del Turuñuelo (Badajoz, Spain). Equids played a central economic and symbolic role in Iberian Iron Age society, yet little is known about their health and management during the protohistoric period. This study examines the unusually well-preserved equid assemblage from the Tartessian site of Casas del Turuñuelo (Badajoz, Spain), dating from the 5th century BCE with the aim of reconstructing patterns of pathology and biomechanical stress. Thirty-one individuals were subjected to macroscopic paleopathological assessment following established diagnostic criteria and, for a subset of seven individuals, computed tomography (CT) ...
Diagnostic Performance of Digital Tomosynthesis for Detecting Osteophytes and Subchondral Bone Changes in the Equine Distal Interphalangeal and Metacarpophalangeal Joints. Osteoarthritis is a common cause of equine lameness and can involve periarticular osteophytes and subchondral bone (SB) changes. This exploratory ex vivo study evaluated the diagnostic performance of digital tomosynthesis (DT) for detecting these findings in the distal interphalangeal and metacarpophalangeal joints, using computed tomography (CT) classifications as the reference. Sixteen distal forelimbs from nine adult horses underwent imaging with both modalities under simulated weight-bearing conditions. Three independent observers graded osteophytes and SB changes, and the scores were dich...
Correlation of 2D Linear and 3D Volumetric Measurement Techniques for Subchondral Bone Sclerosis in the Equine Distal Limb Using Standing Computed Tomography. Subchondral bone sclerosis of the distal third palmar/plantar metacarpal/metatarsal condyles is a common radiographic finding in Thoroughbred racehorses. Traditionally, assessment has relied on two-dimensional (2D) linear measurements; however, advances in imaging software now allow three-dimensional (3D) volumetric quantification of subchondral bone. This study aimed to assess the relationship and agreement between computed tomography (CT)-derived 2D linear and volumetric measurements of condylar sclerosis and computer-generated 3D volumetric measurements and determine whether 2D measurements...
Historical, clinical and nasal endoscopic findings in 1600 cases of equine sinonasal disease and associations with case outcome. No large study has described the signalment, pre-referral management or clinical and nasal endoscopic findings in equine sinonasal disease. Objective: To explore associations between case outcome and signalment, pre-referral treatments, clinical and nasal endoscopic variables in sinonasal disease. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Data were collected from medical records of 19 equine hospitals on sinonasal disease cases they had examined and which had undergone computed tomographic (CT) imaging. Case outcome was obtained from clinical records and/or by contacting clients and referri...
Computed tomographic findings in 1600 cases of equine sinonasal disease and associations with case outcome. No study has described the computed tomographic (CT) sinonasal findings in a large cohort of referred sinonasal disease cases. Objective: To report the CT imaging findings in equine sinonasal disease and examine associations between case outcome and CT findings. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Data were collected from medical records from 19 equine hospitals on sinonasal disease cases which had undergone CT imaging. Case outcome was obtained from clinical records, and/or by contacting clients and referring veterinarians. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to exami...
Associations between treatments and response to treatments from a large multicentre study of equine sinonasal disease. No large study has examined the treatment and response to treatment of horses with sinonasal disease confirmed by computed tomography (CT). Objective: To report the treatment and response to treatment of referred cases of equine sinonasal disease. To explore associations between case outcome and clinical and endoscopic features, CT findings, disease subtypes, and treatments in a multivariable model. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Data were collected from medical records from 19 equine hospitals on cases of sinonasal disease, all of which underwent CT imaging. Case outcome was obt...
Diagnosed causes of sinonasal disease in 1600 horses and associations with clinical signs, computed tomographic findings and case outcome. The diagnosis of equine sinonasal disorders has been greatly enhanced by using computed tomographic (CT) imaging. Objective: To explore associations between specific diagnoses and clinical and CT findings and between specific diagnoses and case outcome in equine sinonasal disease. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Data were collected from medical records from 19 equine hospitals on cases of sinonasal disease, all of which underwent CT imaging. Case outcome was obtained from clinical records, and/or by contacting clients and referring veterinarians. Logistic regression analysis was u...
Computed Tomographic Lesion Descriptors in Foals With Hematogenous Osteomyelitis: Interobserver Agreement and Association With Outcome. Computed tomography (CT) is increasingly used to diagnose osteomyelitis in foals, but the prognostic value and interobserver reproducibility of specific CT lesion descriptors remain unclear. This multicenter retrospective study aimed to characterize CT features of hematogenous osteomyelitis in foals using a structured radiologic feature set, assess interobserver agreement, and evaluate associations between CT descriptors and survival to hospital discharge and long-term survival. We hypothesized that CT features considered aggressive, including a long transition zone, permeative or moth-eaten o...
Surgical Management of Unilateral Maxillary Molar Teeth Impaction in a Horse. Impaction of equine permanent cheek teeth is most commonly reported in the mandible, whereas maxillary involvement is rare. This report describes an uncommon presentation of congenital impaction of 3 successive maxillary molar teeth in a 4-year-old mare. Computed tomography revealed complex spatial relationships between the impacted teeth, the sinus floor and adjacent structures, which were not fully appreciated on conventional radiography and were essential for surgical planning. Surgical extraction via a maxillary sinus bone flap permitted controlled sectioning and subsequent removal of all ...
Multi-Detector Helical Computer Tomography, Transrectal Ultrasonography and Histology of the Lumbosacral Area: A Comparative Study in Warmblood Horse Cadavers. Pain arising from the lumbosacral region is a recognized cause of poor performance and impaired welfare in horses. However, structural changes in the intertransverse joints (ITJs), lumbar articular process joints (APJs), and lumbosacral intervertebral discs (LSDs) may also occur in asymptomatic horses, complicating interpretation of imaging findings.This study evaluated these structures in 14 middle-aged Warmblood cadavers that were not lame according to the owners prior the onset of the problem that resulted in euthanasia or slaughter and correlated ultrasonographic (US) and computed tomograp...
Osteosynthesis of bilateral, displaced incisive bone fracture in a horse. A nine-year-old Trakehner mare was presented three days after an episode of severe epistaxis, showing intermittent foul-smelling nasal discharge with feed material and rostral displacement of the upper incisor teeth. Radiographic and computed tomography examinations revealed a complete comminuted fracture of the right side and an oblique complete fracture of the left side nasal processes of the incisive bone and maxillary bone, as well as open fractures of the nasal septum and palatine bone with displacement of the incisor part rostrally and development of an oronasal communication. The fractu...
Longitudinal, Objective Fan-Beam Computed Tomographic Evaluation of the Distal Third Metacarpal Bone in 31 Non-Lame Showjumpers. Computed tomography (CT) is increasingly used in equine lameness diagnosis, but no objective CT findings have been documented in the fetlock of sport horses. The aim of this study was to describe the pattern and longitudinal changes of densification in the distal third metacarpal bone (McIII) in non-lame showjumpers using CT measurements. Fan-beam CT examination of both metacarpophalangeal regions was performed in 31 non-lame showjumpers in regular work, at four examinations (times 0-3) on 27, 21 and 10 horses, respectively, with a median interval of 10 months. Mean Hounsfield unit (HU) values...
Clinical outcomes of a novel flowable calcium silicate cement in equine endodontic treatment. Orthograde endodontic treatment of equine cheek teeth is performed infrequently with variable success rates of obturation with calcium hydroxide paste (CHP). A novel flowable calcium silicate cement (eCSC) formulated for use as an obturation material in equine teeth has demonstrated acceptable canal filling volumes and evidence of dentinal tubule penetration. However, clinical outcomes of eCSC-obturated equine teeth have not been reported. Objective: To report the clinical outcomes of orthograde endodontic treatment using eCSC. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Horses that underwent...
Maxillary and mandibular fracture repair using a modified bis-acryl reinforced interdental wiring technique: Description of the technique and report of 11 cases. Repair options for maxillary and mandibular fractures in horses are dictated by the proximity of dentition, fracture configuration, and implant design. Jaw fractures can be repaired by minimising tension forces via intraoral splint constructs when dentition is present on either side of the fracture line. This repair option reduces iatrogenic damage to dentition while achieving reduction and stability until appliance removal. Objective: To first report a modified technique for jaw fracture repair in horses with cadaveric example images. Second, to report the clinical outcome of maxillary and ma...
Pneumocoele sinus: Computed tomographic findings and surgical approach in a 2-year-old Cob filly. Pneumosinus dilatans and pneumocoele sinus describe abnormal hyperpneumatisation of paranasal sinuses, with the latter being accompanied by thinning of bony walls. Although recognised in human and equine medicine, to the authors' knowledge, this condition's computed tomography (CT) findings and successful surgical approach in horses have not previously been reported in conjunction. Advanced imaging, particularly CT, is pivotal for identifying abnormal sinus expansion and associated nasal obstruction. Methods: Case report. Conclusions: A 2-year-5-month-old Cob filly presented with a 1-month his...
Morphological study of nasal diverticulum in Grant’s zebra (Equus quagga boehmi Matschie, 1892). The nasal diverticulum (ND), a blind cutaneous pouch extending from the nasal vestibule (NV), is unique to Equidae. Although anatomical and histological descriptions of the ND are available for horses and donkeys, detailed studies in zebras remain limited. Objective: To investigate and characterize the anatomical and histological features of the ND in zebras and compare these findings with those observed in other species. Methods: Silicone casts of the NDs were prepared from two of three female Grant's zebra carcasses for anatomical measurements, followed by dissection for gross morphological ...
Computed tomography long-term follow-up of a facial fracture involving the orbit and paranasal sinus. Fractures of the facial bones involving the orbit are challenging conditions that require surgical treatment. Objective: To describe preoperative and postoperative clinical and computed tomographic findings of an orbital rim fracture repaired using a reconstruction plate. Methods: Case report. Methods: A 14-year-old Haflinger mare was presented with an open, depressed and comminuted fracture involving the frontal, nasal, lacrimal and maxillary bone, sinus system and the medial aspect of the orbital rim and wall on the right side, as diagnosed by CT. Fracture repair included orbital rim reconst...
Radiographic identification and description of the equine middle conchal sinus (ethmoidal sinus): Implications for diagnosing middle conchal sinusitis. The middle conchal sinus (MCS) (ethmoidal sinus) remains one of the least understood equine paranasal compartments. Despite recognition of its involvement in sinonasal disease, disorders of the MCS often remain underdiagnosed in the absence of computed tomographic (CT) imaging due to limited anatomical understanding and challenges with radiographic visualisation. Objective: The objectives of the study were (1) to characterise the radiographic features and anatomical location of the MCS in horses and (2) to illustrate the practical relevance of the anatomical and radiographic findings in two cl...
Comparison of Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Computed Tomography for Evaluation of Cervical Vertebral Nerves and Synovial Tissues in Horses with Cervical Spinal Disease. Pathology of the cervical spine is an important cause of poor performance in sport horses. Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have improved musculoskeletal diagnostic capabilities. CT is well-suited to assess osseous pathology, although it is limited for assessing soft tissues. MRI, the gold standard for imaging soft tissues, cannot be used for antemortem imaging of the equine cervical spine. The diagnostic potential of CT for evaluating soft tissues of the equine cervical spine compared to MRI is not well-defined and warrants investigation. Postmortem MRI was perfor...
Use of computer-assisted tomography for diagnosis and standing surgical reduction of progressive ethmoidal hematoma in a mare. Progressive ethmoidal hematoma (PEH) is a rare, nonneoplastic mass occurring in the sinonasal passages of horses. An 11-year-old, pregnant Thoroughbred mare was presented with a history of intermittent nasal discharge and stertorous respiration. On examination, radiography revealed increased opacity in the sinus and nasal cavities and endoscopy identified a mass emerging from the left ethmoidal turbinate. Computed tomography (CT) showed the range and origin of the mass, indicative of PEH. A standing frontonasal flap was made under sedation, following temporary tracheostomy to secure the airway...
Accuracy of Computed Tomography in Diagnosing Temporomandibular Joint Osteoarthritis Relative to Histopathological Findings-An Ex Vivo Study of 41 Horses. Computed tomography (CT) is used to support the diagnosis of equine temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disease; however, its diagnostic accuracy remains unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between CT findings and histopathological manifestations of osteoarthritis (OA) in equine TMJs. A total of 82 TMJs were CT-imaged, sampled, grouped into age-related and OA-related groups, and analyzed for frequency distributions, correlations, and CT-based TMJ OA diagnosis. CT findings were observed in 79% of joints, including 'CT anatomical variations' considering to reflect age-related remode...
Comparison of Two Different Finite Element Modeling Pipelines for Virtual Mechanical Testing of The Distal Third Metacarpal Bone In Thoroughbred Racehorses. Condylar stress fracture of the third metacarpal bone (MC3) in Thoroughbred racehorses is a common catastrophic injury and identification of horses at heightened risk remains subjective. Standing computed tomography (sCT) is a practical screening tool that enables patient-specific finite element analysis (FEA) of the distal MC3 and prediction of subchondral bone strain, as a potential objective classifier of racehorses at heightened risk. The goal of this study was to compare two independently developed sCT-based subject-specific FEA pipelines for virtual mechanical testing of the distal MC3. ...
Novel imaging protocol enables myelography of the cervical vertebral column using computed tomography with flexion and extension comparable to x-ray. Radiographic myelography is the traditional diagnostic method for detecting cervical spinal cord compression in horses but it is limited by superimposition and restriction to sagittal plane imaging. Computed tomography (CT) and CT myelography overcome many of these limitations yet previous CT protocols have not allowed dynamic imaging in flexion and extension comparable to radiographs. Objective: To describe and evaluate a novel CT myelography protocol that enables imaging of the equine cervical vertebral column (C to C/T) in flexion, neutral, and extension, and to compare intervertebral angle...
Size of the C7-T1 articular processes is overestimated on lateral radiographs when compared to standing cone beam computed tomography. Radiography of the caudal cervical vertebral column is commonly performed in horses, but image distortion may occur due to factors such as scapular superimposition, divergent beam, and the distance between anatomy and detector. These variables can falsely suggest enlargement of the articular processes (APs) at the seventh cervical and first thoracic vertebrae (C7-T1). Objective: To assess the presence of magnification of C7-T1 APs as determined by AP:vertebral body (VB) height ratio on lateral radiographs compared to cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) as a gold standard, and to explore inter...
Germline Pathogenic Variant in the APC Gene Suggestive of Gardner Syndrome in a Pony. A 12-year-old pony mare was presented for evaluation of dental disease and nasal discharge. At presentation, clinical signs included bilateral nasal discharge, cutaneous masses, and numerous hard enlargements involving the bones of the skull, maxilla, mandible, and cervical vertebrae. Oral exam revealed advanced dental disease with hard enlargements adjacent to and between numerous cheek teeth. Radiographs and computed tomography confirmed the presence of severe dental disease and proliferative bone lesions disseminated along the skull, hyoid apparatus, and cranial cervical vertebrae. The bony...
