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Medical and veterinary entomology2025; doi: 10.1111/mve.70016

Investigation of the global transportation of Culicoides biting midges, vectors of livestock and equid arboviruses, from flower-packing plants in Kenya.

Abstract: In recent decades there has been a huge increase in the export of cut flowers from countries in Africa and elsewhere to European flower markets, with the vast majority first entering the Netherlands for local use or for export. Coincidentally, three significant livestock disease outbreaks caused by viruses associated with Africa or other tropical regions were first detected in the Netherlands (bluetongue virus serotype 8 (BTV-8), 2006, and BTV-3, 2023) and in western Germany about 200 km from the Netherlands border (Schmallenberg virus, SBV, 2011). This study aimed to determine whether Culicoides biting midges (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae), the vectors of BTV and SBV, are present within flower-packaging plants in East Africa, and therefore whether Culicoides could be unknowingly exported during the shipping of cut flowers. Field sampling was undertaken at a flower-packaging facility in Kenya, East Africa. The facility undertook all stages of cut flower production from maintaining rootstock through to packaging and shipping to an airport for international export. Trapping was undertaken at each stage of production (rootstock, propagation, inside growing greenhouses, in the packing-house, inside cold-storage rooms, during transportation) using Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Light Emitting Diode (LED) light traps. Hand-held aspirators were used to obtain individual insects directly from flowers and around composting sites, while emergence traps studied insect emergence from compost, leaf litter and flowers discarded at quality control checkpoints. A maximum nightly catch of 269 Culicoides was identified on a half-acre smallholding, containing 15 ruminants and 40 birds, located 20 m from the nearest greenhouse. The greatest numbers of Culicoides were trapped at a pond (n = 23) and leaf-litter compost site (n = 19) within the curtilage of the flower-packaging plant. Of the seven greenhouses sampled, three had Culicoides trapped overnight (mean = 4, range: 1-9), and no Culicoides were trapped in the propagation units. No Culicoides were trapped in the pack house, cold-store, or during transportation of the flowers to the airport for shipment. No Culicoides emerged from emergence traps or were trapped when aspirating directly from flowers. This is the first study to investigate whether Culicoides are present within flower packaging plants in Africa. The results highlight that although present in small numbers both outside and within greenhouses, the presence of Culicoides declined with each stage of production. Therefore, the risk of exporting Culicoides with packaged cut flowers is non-zero but likely very small.
© 2025 Royal Entomological Society.
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Publication Date: 2025-10-08 PubMed ID: 41058475DOI: 10.1111/mve.70016Google Scholar: Lookup
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Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This study investigates whether Culicoides biting midges, which can transmit livestock viruses, are present in flower-packaging plants in Kenya and if they could be unintentionally exported with cut flowers.
  • It examines the potential risk of transporting these vectors internationally via the cut flower trade, particularly to European markets.

Background

  • There has been a significant increase in the export of cut flowers from African countries, including Kenya, to European flower markets, with many flowers first arriving in the Netherlands.
  • Several livestock disease outbreaks linked to viruses from Africa or tropical regions (e.g., bluetongue virus serotype 8 in 2006, BTV-3 in 2023, Schmallenberg virus in 2011) were first detected in Europe near major flower import hubs.
  • Culicoides biting midges are known vectors of these viruses affecting livestock, raising concerns that these insects may be transported alongside the flower shipments.

Research Objective

  • To determine if Culicoides biting midges are present within flower-packaging plants in East Africa (Kenya).
  • To assess the likelihood of these midges being exported unintentionally as part of cut flower shipments.

Methodology

  • Field sampling was conducted at a flower-packaging facility in Kenya that included all stages of cut flower production, from maintaining rootstock to shipping.
  • Trapping methods included:
    • CDC LED light traps at different production stages: rootstock, propagation units, greenhouses, packing-house, cold-storage, and transport.
    • Hand-held aspirators to capture insects directly from flowers and composting areas.
    • Emergence traps placed over compost, leaf litter, and discarded flowers to detect newly emerging insects.
  • A nearby smallholding with livestock and birds served as a comparative habitat for trapping maximum Culicoides numbers.

Results

  • A maximum of 269 Culicoides were caught in one night on the smallholding, highlighting ideal conditions for Culicoides abundance near livestock.
  • Within the flower-packaging plant premises:
    • The highest counts were at a pond (23 midges) and leaf-litter compost site (19 midges).
    • Three out of seven greenhouses had low numbers of Culicoides overnight (mean 4, range 1-9).
    • No midges were trapped in propagation units, packing house, cold storage, or during transport to the airport.
    • Emergence traps and aspirators found no Culicoides emerging from or directly on flowers.

Conclusions

  • This is the first study to examine the presence of Culicoides biting midges within African flower-packaging plants.
  • Culicoides are present in small numbers outside and inside some greenhouses but their numbers decline significantly during later production stages.
  • The absence of Culicoides in packing, storage, and transport steps reduces the likelihood of their export on cut flowers to very low but not zero levels.
  • Therefore, while there is some risk of unintentional global transport of these disease vectors via flower shipments, it appears to be minimal according to this study.

Implications

  • Understanding the potential for transporting disease vectors through international trade can improve biosecurity measures.
  • Further monitoring and control protocols at flower packaging and shipment points can help lower the risk of spreading arboviruses that affect livestock and equids.
  • This research supports the need for integrated vector management and routine surveillance in global flower export industries to prevent disease outbreaks in importing countries.

Cite This Article

APA
Stokes JE, Labuschagne K, Fèvre EM, Baylis M. (2025). Investigation of the global transportation of Culicoides biting midges, vectors of livestock and equid arboviruses, from flower-packing plants in Kenya. Med Vet Entomol. https://doi.org/10.1111/mve.70016

Publication

Medical and veterinary entomology
ISSN: 1365-2915
NlmUniqueID: 8708682
Country: England
Language: English

Researcher Affiliations

Stokes, Jessica Eleanor
  • Liverpool University Climate and Infectious Diseases of Animals (LUCINDA) Group, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Cheshire, UK.
Labuschagne, Karien
  • ARC - Onderstepoort Veterinary Research, EPV, Onderstepoort, South Africa.
Fèvre, Eric Maurice
  • Liverpool University Climate and Infectious Diseases of Animals (LUCINDA) Group, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Cheshire, UK.
  • International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
Baylis, Matthew
  • Liverpool University Climate and Infectious Diseases of Animals (LUCINDA) Group, Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Leahurst Campus, Neston, Cheshire, UK.
  • National Institute for Health Research, Health Protection Research Unit in Emerging and Zoonotic Infections, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.

Grant Funding

  • University of Liverpool

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