FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007)2022; 305(12); 3385-3397; doi: 10.1002/ar.24918

Morphological analysis of third metacarpus cartilage and subchondral bone in Thoroughbred racehorses: An ex vivo study.

Abstract: Racehorses are exposed to repetitive overload during training and competition, causing joint hyperextension, tissue fatigue, and ultimately skeletal failure. Some degree of bone changes, such as sclerosis, are expected in equine athletes, as adaptation to the biomechanical rigors of training and racing. Understanding the imaging characteristics of the equine joint surface and subchondral bone would allow earlier detection of injuries or adaptation, improving prognosis and training programs. This study sought to describe the joint surface structural patterns and the periarticular structures of the third metacarpal bone (MC3). Both forelimbs of eight horses engaged in daily training programs, aged 3-5 years, which were euthanized for reasons unrelated to the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints, were collected. Specimens were evaluated through macroscopic inspection, radiography, ultrasonography, and microscopic examinations, such as optical microscopy and microtomography. Analysis of the microtomography images showed that 50% of the samples had higher trabecular thickness in the lateral condyle. Comparison of each imaging examination revealed that ultrasound images were most closely related to the histological examination (p = .29) in terms of sensitivity, while macroscopic and radiographic examinations differed most between evaluators. Finally, the irregularities and modifications observed in the articular cartilage surface and subchondral bone were normal adaptations of the anatomical structures of trained racehorses, which should be considered during clinical examination.
© 2022 American Association for Anatomy.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2022-04-16 PubMed ID: 35338614DOI: 10.1002/ar.24918Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research paper focuses on understanding the structural changes and adaptations that the joints and bones of racehorses undergo due to the stress and strain of training and racing. Prominently, the study observes the third metacarpal bone (MC3) in these horses, using a variety of imaging techniques to compare these observations with histological examinations for the most accurate results.

Study Methodology

The researchers designed this study with a controlled set of subjects:

  • They collected limbs from eight thoroughbred racehorses aged 3-5 years, which were euthanized due to reasons not connected with the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joints.
  • The racehorses were part of daily training programs.

Data Collection and Analysis

Several techniques were employed for thorough examination which were compared to each other for the most precise observations:

  • The researchers conducted macroscopic inspections, radiography, ultrasonography, and microscopic examinations like optical microscopy and microtomography.
  • Microtomography imaging displayed that half of the samples had an increased trabecular thickness in the lateral condyle.
  • Various imaging tests were compared with each other and it was found that ultrasound imaging had the highest correlation with the histological examination while macroscopic and radiographic evaluations showed the most discrepancy amongst evaluators.

Findings

This section pertains to the outcomes that the researchers found at the end:

  • The irregular patterns and changes found in the articular cartilage surface and subchondral bone were considered as normal adaptations in these race horses because of training.
  • However, note of these adaptations should be taken during clinical examinations to avoid unnecessary diagnoses or treatments.

Implications of the Research

By providing a deep understanding of the joint and bone adaptations in racehorses due to their strenuous regimen, this study could help for:

  • Earlier detection of potential injuries.
  • Improving training programs so that they cause less damage to these animals.
  • Offering better prognosis of bone and joint health in racehorses.

Cite This Article

APA
Marsiglia MF, Yamada ALM, Agreste FR, de Sá LRM, Nieman RT, da Silva LCLC. (2022). Morphological analysis of third metacarpus cartilage and subchondral bone in Thoroughbred racehorses: An ex vivo study. Anat Rec (Hoboken), 305(12), 3385-3397. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.24918

Publication

Anatomical record (Hoboken, N.J. : 2007)
ISSN: 1932-8494
NlmUniqueID: 101292775
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 305
Issue: 12
Pages: 3385-3397

Researcher Affiliations

Marsiglia, Marilia Ferrari
  • Cidade Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
Yamada, Ana Lúcia Miluzzi
  • Cidade Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
Agreste, Fernanda Rodrigues
  • Cidade Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
de Sá, Lilian Rose Marques
  • Cidade Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
Nieman, Rodrigo Tavares
  • Cidade Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
da Silva, Luís Cláudio Lopes Correia
  • Cidade Universitária Armando de Salles Oliveira, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.

MeSH Terms

  • Horses
  • Animals
  • Metacarpal Bones / diagnostic imaging
  • Metacarpus / injuries
  • Metacarpus / pathology
  • Physical Conditioning, Animal
  • Cartilage, Articular / diagnostic imaging
  • Cartilage, Articular / pathology
  • Horse Diseases / etiology
  • Horse Diseases / pathology

References

This article includes 54 references
  1. Baldwin CM, Smith MRW, Allen S, Wright IM. Radiographic and arthroscopic features of third carpal bone slab fractures and their impact on racing performance following arthroscopic repair in a population of racing thoroughbreds in the UK. Equine Veterinary Journal 52, 213-218.
  2. Barneveld A, Van weeren PR, Brama PAJ, Tekoppele JM, Bank RA, Karssenberg D. Topographical mapping of biochemical properties of articular cartilage in the equine fetlock joint. Equine Veterinary Journal 32(1), 19-26.
  3. Barr ED, Pinchbeck GL, Clegg PD, Boyde A, Riggs CM. Post mortem evaluation of palmar osteochondral disease (traumatic osteochondrosis) of the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joint in Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Veterinary Journal 41(4), 366-371.
    doi: 10.2746/042516409x368372google scholar: lookup
  4. Boyde A, Firth EC. Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old thoroughbred horses to early training. Quantitative back-scattered electron scanning electron microscopy and confocal fluorescence microscopy of the epiphysis of the third metacarpal bone. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 53, 123-132.
  5. Brama PA, Karssenberg D, Barneveld A, van Weeren PR. Contact areas and pressure distribution on the proximal articular surface of the proximal phalanx under sagittal plane loading. Equine Veterinary Journal 33, 26-32.
  6. Brama PA, Tekoppele JM, Bank RA, Karssenberg D, Barneveld A, van Weeren PR. Topographical mapping of biochemical properties of articular cartilage in the equine fetlock joint. Equine Veterinary Journal 32, 19-26.
  7. Carrig CB. Diagnostic imaging of osteoarthritis. The Veterinary Clinics of North America. Small Animal Practice 27, 777-814.
  8. Diab SS, Stover SM, Carvallo F, Nyaoke AC, Moore J, Hill A, Arthur R, Uzal FA. Diagnostic approach to catastrophic musculoskeletal injuries in racehorses. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 29, 405-413.
  9. Dykgraaf S, Firth EC, Rogers CW, Kawcak CE. Effects of exercise on chondrocyte viability and subchondral bone sclerosis in the distal third metacarpal and metatarsal bones of young horses. Veterinary Journal 178, 53-61.
  10. Eckstein F, Müller-Gerbl M, Steinlechner M, Kierse R, Putz R. Subchondral bone density in the human elbow assessed by computed tomography osteoabsorptiometry: A reflection of the loading history of the joint surfaces. Journal of Orthopaedic Research 13, 268-278.
  11. Ferguson VL, Bushby AJ, Firth EC, Howell PGT, Boyde A. Exercise does not affect stiffness and mineralisation of third metacarpal condylar subarticular calcified tissues in 2 year old thoroughbred racehorses. European Cells & Materials 16, 40-46; discussion 46.
    doi: 10.22203/ecm.v016a05google scholar: lookup
  12. Firth EC, Rogers CW, Doube M, Jopson NB. Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old thoroughbred horses to early training. 6. Bone parameters in the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 53, 101-112.
  13. Firth EC, Rogers CW, Perkins NR, Anderson BH, Grace ND. Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old thoroughbred horses to early training. 1. Study design, and clinical, nutritional, radiological and histological observations. New Zealand Veterinary Journal 52, 261-271.
  14. Hao Z, Kalscheur MP. Decalcification of bone for histochemistry and immunohistochemistry procedures. Journal of Histotechnology 25, 33-36.
  15. Harrison SM, Whitton RC, Kawcak CE, Stover SM, Pandy MG. Relationship between muscle forces, joint loading and utilization of elastic strain energy in equine locomotion. The Journal of Experimental Biology 213(Pt 23), 3998-4009.
  16. Harrison SM, Whitton RC, Kawcak CE, Stover SM, Pandy MG. Evaluation of a subject-specific finite-element model of the equine metacarpophalangeal joint under physiological load. Journal of Biomechanics 47, 65-73.
  17. Hinz A, Fischer AT Jr. Comparison of the accuracy of radiography and ultrasonography for detection of articular lesions in horses. Veterinary Surgery 40, 881-885.
  18. Hoemann C, Kandel R, Roberts S, Saris DB, Creemers L, Mainil-Varlet P, Méthot S, Hollander AP, Buschmann MD. International cartilage repair society (ICRS) recommended guidelines for histological endpoints for cartilage repair studies in animal models and clinical trials. Cartilage 2, 153-172.
  19. Holmes JM, Mirams M, Mackie EJ, Whitton RC. Thoroughbred horses in race training have lower levels of subchondral bone remodelling in highly loaded regions of the distal metacarpus compared to horses resting from training. Veterinary Journal 202, 443-447.
  20. Janes JG, Kennedy LA, Garrett KS, Engiles JB. Common lesions of the distal end of the third metacarpal/metatarsal bone in racehorse catastrophic breakdown injuries. Journal of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation 29, 431-436.
  21. Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Norrdin RW, Park RD, James SP. The role of subchondral bone in joint disease: A review. Equine Veterinary Journal 33, 120-126.
  22. Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Norrdin RW, Park RD, Steyn PS. Clinical effects of exercise on subchondral bone of carpal and metacarpophalangeal joints in horses. American Journal of Veterinary Research 61, 1252-1258.
  23. Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Norrdin RW, Park RD, James SP. The role of subchondral bone in joint disease: a review. Equine Veterinary Journal 33(2), 120-126.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2001.tb00589.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  24. Kraus VB, Huebner JL, DeGroot J, Bendele A. The OARSI histopathology initiative-Recommendations for histological assessments of osteoarthritis in the Guinea pig. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 18(3), S35-S52.
  25. Loeser RF, Collins JA, Diekman BO. Ageing and the pathogenesis of osteoarthritis. Nature Reviews Rheumatology 12, 412-420.
  26. Machado VMV, Aguiar ACS, Viana GF, Crosignani FP. Diagnostic value of computed tomography, radiography and ultrasonography in MCP joint disorders in horses. Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia 68, 66-72.
  27. Martig S, Chen W, Lee PV, Whitton RC. Bone fatigue and its implications for injuries in racehorses. Equine Veterinary Journal 46, 408-415.
  28. Martig S, Hitchens PL, Stevenson MA, Whitton RC. Subchondral bone morphology in the metacarpus of racehorses in training changes with distance from the articular surface but not with age. Journal of Anatomy 232, 919-930.
  29. McCarthy G, O'Donovan J, Jones B, McAllister H, Seed M, Mooney C. Randomised double-blind, positive-controlled trial to assess the efficacy of glucosamine/chondroitin sulfate for the treatment of dogs with osteoarthritis. Veterinary Journal 174, 54-61.
  30. McDevitt CA, Muir H. Biochemical changes in the cartilage of the knee in experimental and natural osteoarthritis in the dog. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. British Volume (London) 58, 94-101.
  31. McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD, Kawcak CE, Fuller CJ, Hurtig M, Cruz A. The OARSI histopathology initiative - recommendations for histological assessments of osteoarthritis in the horse. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 18, S93-S105.
    doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2010.05.031google scholar: lookup
  32. Morgan JW. How to take radiographs of the MCP/metatarsophalangeal joint (fetlock joint). AAEP Proceedings 59, 359-363.
  33. Muir P, Peterson AL, Sample SJ, Scollay MC, Markel MD, Kalscheur VL. Exercise-induced metacarpophalangeal joint adaptation in the thoroughbred racehorse. Journal of Anatomy 213, 706-717.
  34. Murray RC, Birch HL, Lakhani K, Goodship AE. Biochemical composition of equine carpal articular cartilage is influenced by short-term exercise in a site-specific manner. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 9, 625-632.
  35. Murray RC, Branch MV, Dyson SJ, Parkin TD, Goodship AE. How does exercise intensity and type affect equine distal tarsal subchondral bone thickness?. Journal of Applied Physiology 102, 2194-2200.
  36. Pinchbeck GL, Clegg PD, Boyde A, Barr ED, Riggs CM. Horse-, training- and race-level risk factors for palmar/plantar osteochondral disease in the racing thoroughbred. Equine Veterinary Journal 45, 582-586.
  37. Pool RR. Traumatic injury and osteoarthritis. In C. W. Mcilwraith & G. W. Trotter (Eds.), Joint disease in the horse (pp. 87-106). WB Saunders..
  38. Radtke CL, Danova NA, Scollay MC, Santschi EM, Markel MD, Da Costa Gómez T, Muir P. Macroscopic changes in the distal ends of the third metacarpal and metatarsal bones of thoroughbred racehorses with condylar fractures. American Journal of Veterinary Research 64, 1110-1116.
  39. Richard E, Alexander K. Nonconventional radiographic projections in the equine orthopaedic examination. Equine Veterinary Education 19, 551-559.
  40. Riggs CM. Aetiopathogenesis of parasagittal fractures of the distal condyles of the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones-Review of the literature. Equine Veterinary Journal 31, baldw116-baldw120.
  41. Rubio-Martínez LM, Cruz AM, Gordon K, Hurtig MB. Structural characterization of subchondral bone in the distal aspect of third metacarpal bones from thoroughbred racehorses via micro-computed tomography. American Journal of Veterinary Research 69, 1413-1422.
  42. Rubio-Martínez LM, Cruz AM, Gordon K, Hurtig MB. Mechanical properties of subchondral bone in the distal aspect of third metacarpal bones from thoroughbred racehorses. American Journal of Veterinary Research 69, 1423-1433.
  43. Schmitz N, Laverty S, Kraus VB, Aigner T. Basic methods in histopathology of joint tissues. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage 18(Suppl 3), S113-S116.
  44. Silva MM, Hagen SCF, Vendruscolo CP, Baccarin RYA, Spagnolo JD, Yamada ALM, Stievani FC, Correia LCLC. The correlation between score-based protocol for equine joint assessment and subsequent arthroscopic intervention outcomes. Brazilian Journal of Veterinary Research and Animal Science 56, 13.
  45. Stashak TS. Lameness part II: The pastern. In T. S. Stashak (Ed.), Adams' lameness in horses (5th ed., pp. 764-768). Lippincott, Williams &Wilkins..
  46. Trope GD, Anderson GA, Whitton RC. Patterns of scintigraphic uptake in the fetlock joint of thoroughbred racehorses and the effect of increased radiopharmaceutical uptake in the distal metacarpal/tarsal condyle on performance. Equine Veterinary Journal 43, 509-515.
  47. Trope GD, Ghasem-Zadeh A, Anderson GA, Mackie EJ, Whitton RC. Can high-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography imaging of subchondral and cortical bone predict condylar fracture in thoroughbred racehorses?. Equine Veterinary Journal 47, 428-432.
  48. Turley SM, Thambyah A, Riggs CM, Firth EC, Broom ND. Microstructural changes in cartilage and bone related to repetitive overloading in an equine athlete model. Journal of Anatomy 224, 647-658.
  49. Vanderperren K, Saunders JH. Diagnostic imaging of the equine fetlock region using radiography and ultrasonography. Part 2: The bony disorders. Veterinary Journal 181, 123-136.
  50. Whitton RC, Ayodele BA, Hitchens PL, Mackie EJ. Subchondral bone microdamage accumulation in distal metacarpus of thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Veterinary Journal 50, 766-773.
  51. Whitton RC, Trope GD, Ghasem-Zadeh A, Anderson GA, Parkin TD, Mackie EJ, Seeman E. Third metacarpal condylar fatigue fractures in equine athletes occur within previously modelled subchondral bone. Bone 47, 826-831.
  52. Williamson AJ, Sims NA, Thomas CDL, Lee PVS, Stevenson MA, Whitton RC. Biomechanical testing of the calcified metacarpal articular surface and its association with subchondral bone microstructure in thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Veterinary Journal 50, 255-260.
  53. Ytrehus B, Carlson CS, Ekman S. Etiology and pathogenesis of osteochondrosis. Veterinary Pathology 44, 429-448.
  54. Zachary JF, Mcgavin MD. Seção 2: Patologia dos sistemas orgânicos. In: ELSEVIER (Ed.). Bases da patologia em veterinária. 5th Edition, pp. 935-965..

Citations

This article has been cited 3 times.
  1. Nocera I, Puccinelli C, Sgorbini M, Bagnoli E, Citi S. Ultrasonography of the Metacarpal/Tarsal-Phalangeal Joints in Healthy Racehorses: Normal Appearance, Breed-Related and Age-Related Features. Animals (Basel) 2022 Oct 3;12(19).
    doi: 10.3390/ani12192657pubmed: 36230398google scholar: lookup
  2. Malekipour F, Whitton RC, Lee PV. Advancements in Subchondral Bone Biomechanics: Insights from Computed Tomography and Micro-Computed Tomography Imaging in Equine Models. Curr Osteoporos Rep 2024 Dec;22(6):544-552.
    doi: 10.1007/s11914-024-00886-ypubmed: 39276168google scholar: lookup
  3. Pereira LO, DE Souza AF, Spagnolo JD, Yamada ALM, Salgado DMRA, DE Zoppa ALDV. Radiographic texture of the trabecular bone of the proximal phalanx in horses with metacarpophalangeal osteoarthritis. J Equine Sci 2024 Jul;35(2):21-28.
    doi: 10.1294/jes.35.21pubmed: 38962515google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,970 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.