FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Journal of clinical microbiology1999; 37(2); 358-361; doi: 10.1128/JCM.37.2.358-361.1999

Prevalence of beta2-toxigenic Clostridium perfringens in horses with intestinal disorders.

Abstract: The incidence of a new, yet unassigned toxin type of Clostridium perfringens containing the genes for the alpha-toxin and the recently described beta2-toxin in horses with intestinal disorders is reported. The study included 18 horses suffering from typical typhlocolitis, 7 horses with atypical typhlocolitis, 16 horses with other intestinal disorders, and 58 horses without intestinal disease. In total, 20 samples of ingesta of the small and large intestines, five biopsy specimens of the intestinal wall, and 74 fecal samples were analyzed bacteriologically. C. perfringens isolates were typed for the presence of the alpha-, beta-, beta2-, and epsilon-toxin and enterotoxin genes by PCR, including a newly developed PCR for the detection of the beta2-toxin gene cpb2. beta2-Toxigenic C. perfringens was detected in samples from 13 of 25 (52%) horses with typical or atypical typhlocolitis, with a particularly high incidence in specimens of ingesta and biopsy specimens (75%), whereas only 6 of 16 specimens from horses with other intestinal diseases yielded beta2-toxigenic C. perfringens. No beta2-toxigenic C. perfringens was found in the samples from the 58 control horses, of which only one fecal sample contained C. perfringens type A. Among the samples from the 15 horses with fatal cases of typical and atypical typhlocolitis 9 (60%) were positive for beta2-toxigenic C. perfringens, whereas samples from only 4 of the 10 (40%) animals with nonfatal cases of infection were positive. We found an interesting correlation between the antibiotic-treated horses which were positive for beta2-toxigenic C. perfringens and lethal progression of the disease. No C. perfringens strains isolated in this study contained genes for the beta- and epsilon-toxins and enterotoxin. The high incidence of beta2-toxigenic C. perfringens in samples of ingesta, biopsy specimens of the intestinal wall, and feces from horses suffering or dying from typhlocolitis together with the absence of this organism in healthy horses provides strong evidence that beta2-toxigenic C. perfringens play an important role in the pathogenesis of typhlocolitis.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 1999-01-16 PubMed ID: 9889218PubMed Central: PMC84307DOI: 10.1128/JCM.37.2.358-361.1999Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article investigates the contribution of beta2-toxigenic Clostridium perfringens, a type of bacteria, in horses suffering from intestinal disorders. Most notably they recognized a higher prevalence of these bacteria in horses with typhlocolitis (a condition causing inflammation of the cecum or colon) and distinct correlations with fatal disease progression.

Study Methods and Participants

  • The study sampled 18 horses with typical typhlocolitis, 7 horses with atypical typhlocolitis, 16 horses with other intestinal disorders, and 58 horses with no intestinal disease. Samples were obtained from the ingesta of the small and large intestines, biopsy specimens of the intestinal wall, and feces.
  • Clostridium perfringens isolates in the samples were identified and typed based on the genetic presence of the alpha, beta, beta2, and epsilon toxins and enterotoxin. This typing relied mainly on Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) methods, including a newly developed PCR for the detection of the beta2-toxin gene.

Key Findings

  • The researchers found beta2-toxigenic Clostridium perfringens bacteria in 52% of horses with typhlocolitis, with a 75% incidence in the ingesta samples and biopsy specimens from these horses.
  • Comparatively, fewer cases were found in horses suffering from other intestinal disorders, and none in the control group of healthy horses. This provides a strong link between the beta2-toxigenic variant of this bacteria and the onset of typhlocolitis.
  • The researchers also observed that 60% of fatal cases of typhlocolitis tested positive for beta2-toxigenic C. perfringens. An association was noted between antibiotic-treated horses that were positive for beta2-toxigenic C. perfringens and deadly outcomes of the disease.

Conclusions and Implications

  • The elevated incidence of beta2-toxigenic Clostridium perfringens in horses with typhlocolitis and the absence of this bacterium in healthy horses propose a significant role of these bacteria in the development of this disease.
  • The study did not find the genes of other common toxins (beta and epsilon) and enterotoxin in the Clostridium perfringens strains that were isolated, making the beta2-toxigenic variant a specific concern for typhlocolitis in horses.
  • The correlation between antibiotic-treated horses testing positive for beta2-toxigenic C. perfringens and fatal disease progression suggests that particular attention may be needed in the clinical management of these cases.

Cite This Article

APA
Herholz C, Miserez R, Nicolet J, Frey J, Popoff M, Gibert M, Gerber H, Straub R. (1999). Prevalence of beta2-toxigenic Clostridium perfringens in horses with intestinal disorders. J Clin Microbiol, 37(2), 358-361. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.37.2.358-361.1999

Publication

Journal of clinical microbiology
ISSN: 0095-1137
NlmUniqueID: 7505564
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 37
Issue: 2
Pages: 358-361

Researcher Affiliations

Herholz, C
  • Department of Equine Internal Medicine, Berne, Switzerland.
Miserez, R
    Nicolet, J
      Frey, J
        Popoff, M
          Gibert, M
            Gerber, H
              Straub, R

                MeSH Terms

                • Animals
                • Bacterial Toxins / biosynthesis
                • Bacterial Toxins / genetics
                • Calcium-Binding Proteins
                • Clostridium Infections / epidemiology
                • Clostridium Infections / pathology
                • Clostridium Infections / veterinary
                • Clostridium perfringens / classification
                • Clostridium perfringens / genetics
                • Clostridium perfringens / isolation & purification
                • Clostridium perfringens / metabolism
                • Colitis / microbiology
                • Colitis / pathology
                • Colitis / veterinary
                • Enterotoxins / classification
                • Enterotoxins / genetics
                • Feces / microbiology
                • Horse Diseases / epidemiology
                • Horse Diseases / microbiology
                • Horses
                • Intestinal Diseases / veterinary
                • Intestines / microbiology
                • Polymerase Chain Reaction / methods
                • Type C Phospholipases / biosynthesis
                • Type C Phospholipases / genetics

                References

                This article includes 19 references
                1. Båverud V, Gustafsson A, Franklin A, Lindholm A, Gunnarsson A. Clostridium difficile associated with acute colitis in mature horses treated with antibiotics.. Equine Vet J 1997;29:279–284.
                  pubmed: 15338908
                2. Beckmann G T, Gautsch S, Amtsberg G. Vorkommen und Bedeutung von Clostridium perfringens im Darmkanal des Pferdes. Pferdeheilkunde Sonderausgabe 1992;pp. 55–58.
                3. Beier R, Amtsberg G, Peters M. Bakteriologische Untersuchungen zum Vorkommen und zur Bedeutung von Clostridium difficile beim Pferd.. Pferdeheilkunde 1994;10:3–8.
                4. Buogo C, Capaul S, Häni H, Frey J, Nicolet J. Diagnosis of Clostridium perfringens type C enteritis in pigs using a DNA amplification technique (PCR). J Vet Med B 1995;42:51–58.
                  pubmed: 7483901
                5. Cosmetatos I, Perrin J, Gallusser J, Nicolet J, Straub R. Faecal isolation of Clostridium difficile and its toxins from horses with typhlocolitis. 7th International Conference on Equine Infectious Diseases 1994;p. 69.
                6. Dickie C W, Klinbermann L, Petrie R J. Enterotoxemia in two foals.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1978;173:306–307.
                  pubmed: 211108
                7. East L M, Savage C J, Traub-Dargatz J L, Dickinson D E, Ellis R P. Enterocolitis associated with Clostridium perfringens infection in neonatal foals: 54 cases (1988–1997). J Am Vet Med Assoc 1998;212:1751–1756.
                  pubmed: 9621884
                8. Fach P, Delbart M O, Schlachter A, Poumeyrol M, Popoff M R. Apport de la technique d’amplification génique (PCR) au diagnostic des toxi-infections alimentaires àClostridium perfringens.. Med Mal Infec 1993;23:70–77.
                9. Frey J, Popoff M. Unpublished results.. .
                10. Gibert M, Jolivet-Renaud C, Popoff M R. Beta2 toxin, a novel toxin produced by Clostridium perfringens.. Gene 1997;203:65–73.
                  pubmed: 9426008
                11. Hatheway C L. Toxigenic clostridia.. Clin Microbiol Rev 1990;3:66–98.
                  pmc: PMC358141pubmed: 2404569
                12. McDonel J L. Toxins of Clostridium perfringens types A, B, C, D and E.. Pharmacology of bacterial toxins 1986;pp. 477–507.
                13. Ochoa R, Kern S R. The effects of Clostridium perfringens type A enterotoxin in Shetland ponies—clinical, morphologic and clinicopathologic changes.. Vet Pathol 1980;17:738–747.
                  pubmed: 6252678
                14. Perrin J, Cosmetatos I, Gallusser A, Lobsiger L, Straub R, Nicolet J. Clostridium difficile associated with typhlocolitis in an adult horse.. J Vet Diagn Invest 1993;5:99–101.
                  pubmed: 8466991
                15. Prescott J F, Staempfli H R, Barker I K, Bertoni R, Delaney K. A method for reproducing fatal idiopathic colitis (colitis X) in ponies and isolation of a clostridium as a possible agent.. Equine Vet J 1988;20:417–420.
                  pubmed: 3215166
                16. Traub-Dargatz J L, Jones R L. Clostridia associated enterocolitis in adult horses and foals.. Vet Clin N Am Equine Pract 1993;9:411–421.
                  pubmed: 8358653
                17. Van Damme-Jongsten M, Wernars K, Notermans S. Cloning and sequencing of the Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin gene.. Antonie Leeuwenhoek Int J Gen Microbiol 1989;56:181–190.
                  pubmed: 2802575
                18. Wierup M. Equine intestinal clostridiosis.. Acta Vet Scand (Suppl) 1977;62:1–182.
                  pubmed: 195449
                19. Wren B W, Heard S R, Al-Saleh A I, Tabaqchali S. Characterisation of Clostridium difficile strains by polymerase chain reaction with toxin A- and B- specific primers.. J Med Microbiol 1993;38:109–113.
                  pubmed: 8429535

                Citations

                This article has been cited 42 times.
                1. Abdolmohammadi Khiav L, Emadi A, Dadar M. Conventional and molecular identification of Iranian Clostridia species associated with animal infection. Vet Res Forum 2025;16(6):345-352.
                  doi: 10.30466/vrf.2024.2035437.4361pubmed: 40726535google scholar: lookup
                2. Smith MZ, York M, Townsend KS, Martin LM, Gull T, Coghill LM, Ericsson AC, Johnson PJ. Effects of orally administered clioquinol on the fecal microbiome of horses. J Vet Intern Med 2025 Jan-Feb;39(1):e17276.
                  doi: 10.1111/jvim.17276pubmed: 39709594google scholar: lookup
                3. Haywood LMB, Sheahan BJ. A Review of Epithelial Ion Transporters and Their Roles in Equine Infectious Colitis. Vet Sci 2024 Oct 7;11(10).
                  doi: 10.3390/vetsci11100480pubmed: 39453072google scholar: lookup
                4. Talukdar PK, Alnoman M, Sarker MR. Identification of Germinants and Expression of Germination Genes in Clostridium perfringens Strains Isolated from Diarrheic Animals. Pathogens 2024 Feb 22;13(3).
                  doi: 10.3390/pathogens13030194pubmed: 38535537google scholar: lookup
                5. Ali HM, Hussain S, Ahmad MZ, Siddique AB, Ali S, Mohiuddin M, Ehsan M, Nadeem M, Qayyum A, Hussain R, Khan I, A Al Farraj D, Alzaidi E. Molecular identification of different toxinogenic strains of Clostridium perfringens and histo-pathological observations of camels died of per-acute entero-toxaemia. Heliyon 2024 Mar 30;10(6):e27859.
                  doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27859pubmed: 38533056google scholar: lookup
                6. Gomez D, Toribio R, Caddey B, Costa M, Vijan S, Dembek K. Longitudinal effects of oral administration of antimicrobial drugs on fecal microbiota of horses. J Vet Intern Med 2023 Nov-Dec;37(6):2562-2572.
                  doi: 10.1111/jvim.16853pubmed: 37681574google scholar: lookup
                7. Stummer M, Frisch V, Glitz F, Hinney B, Spergser J, Krücken J, Diekmann I, Dimmel K, Riedel C, Cavalleri JV, Rümenapf T, Joachim A, Lyrakis M, Auer A. Presence of Equine and Bovine Coronaviruses, Endoparasites, and Bacteria in Fecal Samples of Horses with Colic. Pathogens 2023 Aug 15;12(8).
                  doi: 10.3390/pathogens12081043pubmed: 37624003google scholar: lookup
                8. Kalender H, Öngör H, Timurkaan N, Karagülle B, Karabulut B, İncili CA, Başar HE, Ekinci E, Çevik A, Atıl E, Çetinkaya B. Detection and molecular characterization of Clostridium perfringens, Paeniclostridium sordellii and Clostridium septicum from lambs and goat kids with hemorrhagic abomasitis in Turkey. BMC Vet Res 2023 Jan 13;19(1):8.
                  doi: 10.1186/s12917-023-03569-5pubmed: 36639759google scholar: lookup
                9. Kronfeld H, Kemper N, Hölzel CS. Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of C. perfringens Isolates from Dairy Cows with a Pathological Puerperium. Vet Sci 2022 Apr 4;9(4).
                  doi: 10.3390/vetsci9040173pubmed: 35448671google scholar: lookup
                10. Ahmed HA, El Bayomi RM, Hamed RI, Mohsen RA, El-Gohary FA, Hefny AA, Elkhawaga E, Tolba HMN. Genetic Relatedness, Antibiotic Resistance, and Effect of Silver Nanoparticle on Biofilm Formation by Clostridium perfringens Isolated from Chickens, Pigeons, Camels, and Human Consumers. Vet Sci 2022 Mar 2;9(3).
                  doi: 10.3390/vetsci9030109pubmed: 35324837google scholar: lookup
                11. Uzal FA, Navarro MA, Asin J, Henderson EE. Clostridial Diseases of Horses: A Review. Vaccines (Basel) 2022 Feb 17;10(2).
                  doi: 10.3390/vaccines10020318pubmed: 35214776google scholar: lookup
                12. Benz R, Piselli C, Hoxha C, Koy C, Glocker MO, Popoff MR. Clostridium perfringens Beta2 toxin forms highly cation-selective channels in lipid bilayers. Eur Biophys J 2022 Jan;51(1):15-27.
                  doi: 10.1007/s00249-021-01577-7pubmed: 34854958google scholar: lookup
                13. Magdesian KG, Barnum S, Pusterla N. Fecal PCR testing for detection of Clostridium perfringens and Clostridioides difficile toxin genes and other pathogens in foals with diarrhea: 28 cases. J Vet Diagn Invest 2022 May;34(3):396-401.
                  doi: 10.1177/10406387211047529pubmed: 34554023google scholar: lookup
                14. Kopper JJ, Willette JA, Kogan CJ, Seguin A, Bolin SR, Schott HC 2nd. Detection of pathogens in blood or feces of adult horses with enteric disease and association with outcome of colitis. J Vet Intern Med 2021 Sep;35(5):2465-2472.
                  doi: 10.1111/jvim.16238pubmed: 34382708google scholar: lookup
                15. Bai J, Qiao X, Ma Y, Han M, Jia S, Huang X, Han B, Wang L, Li Y, Xu Y. Protection Efficacy of Oral Bait Probiotic Vaccine Constitutively Expressing Tetravalent Toxoids against Clostridium perfringens Exotoxins in Livestock (Rabbits). Vaccines (Basel) 2020 Jan 8;8(1).
                  doi: 10.3390/vaccines8010017pubmed: 31936328google scholar: lookup
                16. Ding G, Bai J, Feng B, Wang L, Qiao X, Zhou H, Jiang Y, Cui W, Tang L, Li Y, Xu Y. An EGFP-marked recombinant lactobacillus oral tetravalent vaccine constitutively expressing α, ε, β1, and β2 toxoids for Clostridium perfringens elicits effective anti-toxins protective immunity. Virulence 2019 Dec;10(1):754-767.
                  doi: 10.1080/21505594.2019.1653720pubmed: 31429624google scholar: lookup
                17. Chon JW, Seo KH, Bae D, Park JH, Khan S, Sung K. Prevalence, toxin gene profile, antibiotic resistance, and molecular characterization of Clostridium perfringens from diarrheic and non-diarrheic dogs in Korea. J Vet Sci 2018 May 31;19(3):368-374.
                  doi: 10.4142/jvs.2018.19.3.368pubmed: 29486533google scholar: lookup
                18. Goossens E, Valgaeren BR, Pardon B, Haesebrouck F, Ducatelle R, Deprez PR, Van Immerseel F. Rethinking the role of alpha toxin in Clostridium perfringens-associated enteric diseases: a review on bovine necro-haemorrhagic enteritis. Vet Res 2017 Feb 16;48(1):9.
                  doi: 10.1186/s13567-017-0413-xpubmed: 28209206google scholar: lookup
                19. Zeng J, Song F, Yang Y, Ma C, Deng G, Li Y, Wang Y, Liu X. The Generation and Characterization of Recombinant Protein and Antibodies of Clostridium perfringens Beta2 Toxin. J Immunol Res 2016;2016:5708468.
                  doi: 10.1155/2016/5708468pubmed: 27672668google scholar: lookup
                20. Han SK, Shin MS, Park HE, Kim SY, Lee WK. Screening of Bacteriocin-producing Enterococcus faecalis Strains for Antagonistic Activities against Clostridium perfringens. Korean J Food Sci Anim Resour 2014;34(5):614-21.
                  doi: 10.5851/kosfa.2014.34.5.614pubmed: 26761495google scholar: lookup
                21. Schoster A, Staempfli HR, Abrahams M, Jalali M, Weese JS, Guardabassi L. Effect of a probiotic on prevention of diarrhea and Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens shedding in foals. J Vet Intern Med 2015 May-Jun;29(3):925-31.
                  doi: 10.1111/jvim.12584pubmed: 25903509google scholar: lookup
                22. Mehdizadeh Gohari I, Parreira VR, Nowell VJ, Nicholson VM, Oliphant K, Prescott JF. A novel pore-forming toxin in type A Clostridium perfringens is associated with both fatal canine hemorrhagic gastroenteritis and fatal foal necrotizing enterocolitis. PLoS One 2015;10(4):e0122684.
                  doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122684pubmed: 25853427google scholar: lookup
                23. Uzal FA, Vidal JE, McClane BA, Gurjar AA. Clostridium Perfringens Toxins Involved in Mammalian Veterinary Diseases. Open Toxinology J 2010;2:24-42.
                  pubmed: 24511335
                24. Lee KE, Lim SI, Shin SH, Kwon YK, Kim HY, Song JY, An DJ. Distribution of Clostridium perfringens isolates from piglets in South Korea. J Vet Med Sci 2014 May;76(5):745-9.
                  doi: 10.1292/jvms.13-0430pubmed: 24430655google scholar: lookup
                25. Gohari IM, Arroyo L, Macinnes JI, Timoney JF, Parreira VR, Prescott JF. Characterization of Clostridium perfringens in the feces of adult horses and foals with acute enterocolitis. Can J Vet Res 2014 Jan;78(1):1-7.
                  pubmed: 24396174
                26. Silva RO, Santos RL, Pires PS, Pereira LC, Pereira ST, Duarte MC, de Assis RA, Lobato FC. Detection of toxins A/B and isolation of Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens from dogs in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Braz J Microbiol 2013;44(1):133-7.
                  doi: 10.1590/S1517-83822013005000008pubmed: 24159295google scholar: lookup
                27. Goldstein MR, Kruth SA, Bersenas AM, Holowaychuk MK, Weese JS. Detection and characterization of Clostridium perfringens in the feces of healthy and diarrheic dogs. Can J Vet Res 2012 Jul;76(3):161-5.
                  pubmed: 23277693
                28. Schoster A, Arroyo LG, Staempfli HR, Shewen PE, Weese JS. Presence and molecular characterization of Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens in intestinal compartments of healthy horses. BMC Vet Res 2012 Jun 29;8:94.
                  doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-8-94pubmed: 22748233google scholar: lookup
                29. Ceelen L, Haesebrouck F, Vanhaecke T, Rogiers V, Vinken M. Modulation of connexin signaling by bacterial pathogens and their toxins. Cell Mol Life Sci 2011 Sep;68(18):3047-64.
                  doi: 10.1007/s00018-011-0737-zpubmed: 21656255google scholar: lookup
                30. Allaart JG, van Asten AJ, Vernooij JC, Gröne A. Effect of Lactobacillus fermentum on beta2 toxin production by Clostridium perfringens. Appl Environ Microbiol 2011 Jul;77(13):4406-11.
                  doi: 10.1128/AEM.03002-10pubmed: 21602389google scholar: lookup
                31. Lanckriet A, Timbermont L, Happonen LJ, Pajunen MI, Pasmans F, Haesebrouck F, Ducatelle R, Savilahti H, Van Immerseel F. Generation of single-copy transposon insertions in Clostridium perfringens by electroporation of phage mu DNA transposition complexes. Appl Environ Microbiol 2009 May;75(9):2638-42.
                  doi: 10.1128/AEM.02214-08pubmed: 19270116google scholar: lookup
                32. Chalmers G, Bruce HL, Hunter DB, Parreira VR, Kulkarni RR, Jiang YF, Prescott JF, Boerlin P. Multilocus sequence typing analysis of Clostridium perfringens isolates from necrotic enteritis outbreaks in broiler chicken populations. J Clin Microbiol 2008 Dec;46(12):3957-64.
                  doi: 10.1128/JCM.01548-08pubmed: 18945840google scholar: lookup
                33. Gurjar AA, Yennawar NH, Yennawar HP, Rajashankar KR, Hegde NV, Jayarao BM. Expression, crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction studies of recombinant Clostridium perfringens beta 2-toxin. Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun 2007 Jun 1;63(Pt 6):484-7.
                  doi: 10.1107/S1744309107020313pubmed: 17554168google scholar: lookup
                34. Johansson A, Aspan A, Bagge E, Båverud V, Engström BE, Johansson KE. Genetic diversity of Clostridium perfringens type A isolates from animals, food poisoning outbreaks and sludge. BMC Microbiol 2006 May 31;6:47.
                  doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-6-47pubmed: 16737528google scholar: lookup
                35. Songer JG, Miskimmins DW. Clostridium perfringens type E enteritis in calves: two cases and a brief review of the literature. Anaerobe 2004 Aug;10(4):239-42.
                  doi: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2004.05.001pubmed: 16701523google scholar: lookup
                36. Johansson A, Engström BE, Frey J, Johansson KE, Båverud V. Survival of clostridium perfringens during simulated transport and stability of some plasmid-borne toxin genes under aerobic conditions. Acta Vet Scand 2005;46(4):241-7.
                  doi: 10.1186/1751-0147-46-241pubmed: 16398335google scholar: lookup
                37. Harrison B, Raju D, Garmory HS, Brett MM, Titball RW, Sarker MR. Molecular characterization of Clostridium perfringens isolates from humans with sporadic diarrhea: evidence for transcriptional regulation of the beta2-toxin-encoding gene. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005 Dec;71(12):8362-70.
                  doi: 10.1128/AEM.71.12.8362-8370.2005pubmed: 16332823google scholar: lookup
                38. Marlier D, Dewrée R, Lassence C, Licois D, Mainil J, Coudert P, Meulemans L, Ducatelle R, Vindevogel H. Infectious agents associated with epizootic rabbit enteropathy: isolation and attempts to reproduce the syndrome. Vet J 2006 Nov;172(3):493-500.
                  doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2005.07.011pubmed: 16154367google scholar: lookup
                39. Waters M, Raju D, Garmory HS, Popoff MR, Sarker MR. Regulated expression of the beta2-toxin gene (cpb2) in Clostridium perfringens type a isolates from horses with gastrointestinal diseases. J Clin Microbiol 2005 Aug;43(8):4002-9.
                  doi: 10.1128/JCM.43.8.4002-4009.2005pubmed: 16081942google scholar: lookup
                40. Jost BH, Billington SJ, Trinh HT, Bueschel DM, Songer JG. Atypical cpb2 genes, encoding beta2-toxin in Clostridium perfringens isolates of nonporcine origin. Infect Immun 2005 Jan;73(1):652-6.
                  doi: 10.1128/IAI.73.1.652-656.2005pubmed: 15618211google scholar: lookup
                41. Waters M, Savoie A, Garmory HS, Bueschel D, Popoff MR, Songer JG, Titball RW, McClane BA, Sarker MR. Genotyping and phenotyping of beta2-toxigenic Clostridium perfringens fecal isolates associated with gastrointestinal diseases in piglets. J Clin Microbiol 2003 Aug;41(8):3584-91.
                  doi: 10.1128/JCM.41.8.3584-3591.2003pubmed: 12904359google scholar: lookup
                42. Manteca C, Daube G, Jauniaux T, Linden A, Pirson V, Detilleux J, Ginter A, Coppe P, Kaeckenbeeck A, Mainil JG. A role for the Clostridium perfringens beta2 toxin in bovine enterotoxaemia?. Vet Microbiol 2002 May 1;86(3):191-202.
                  doi: 10.1016/s0378-1135(02)00008-1pubmed: 11900954google scholar: lookup
                Subscribe to our newsletter
                Join 100,113 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.