FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Equine Vet J / Racehorse injuries, clinical problems and fatalities recorde...
Equine veterinary journal2001; 33(5); 478-486; doi: 10.2746/042516401776254808

Racehorse injuries, clinical problems and fatalities recorded on British racecourses from flat racing and National Hunt racing during 1996, 1997 and 1998.

Abstract: For improvements to the safety and welfare of racehorses to be possible, it is essential to have access to basic descriptive information about the veterinary incidents encountered during horseracing. A 3 year surveillance study (1996-1998) was conducted by The Jockey Club into racing injuries, other postrace clinical problems and fatalities from all 59 British racecourses (mainland Britain only) to identify risk factors. During the survey there were 222,993 racing starts: 106,897 starts in flat races on turf (47.9%), 26,519 starts in flat races on all-weather surfaces (11.9%), 30,932 starts in chases on turf (13.9%), 51,786 starts in hurdle races on turf (23.2%) and 6,859 starts in National Hunt flat races (3.1%). Information was recorded about age of horses, racing surfaces and clinical events observed or attended by a veterinary team of 2 clinicians and one veterinary surgeon employed by the racing authority. Of the 2358 clinical events reported (1.05% of all starts), 1937 involved the musculoskeletal system and 421 involved other body systems. Six hundred and fifty-seven incidents (0.29% of starts) resulted in death or euthanasia. Eighty-one percent of limb injury reports involved forelimbs and 46% involved flexor tendons/suspensory ligaments. Nonlimb problems included epistaxis (0.83/1000 starts), 'exhausted horse syndrome' (0.47/1000 starts) and paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (0.20/1000 starts). Incidents including fatalities per 1000 starts were 24.7 from chases, 19.45 from hurdle races, 8.46 from National Hunt flat races and 3.97 from flat races. The overall tendon injury was higher in chases than in hurdle races, even though age-specific rates of tendon injury were higher in hurdle races than in chases. The risk of injuries per start increased significantly with age, while softer racing surfaces were associated with fewer fatalities and injuries than firmer surfaces. The survey described in this paper has provided an up-to-date description of the fatal and non-fatal horseracing incidents under conditions on mainland Britain, enabling progress to be made towards improving the safety and welfare of racehorses.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2001-09-18 PubMed ID: 11558743DOI: 10.2746/042516401776254808Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The research article focuses on a study analyzing injury patterns, clinical issues, and fatalities among racehorses on British racecourses from 1996 to 1998.

Study Overview

  • The study was a surveillance analysis carried out over three years (1996-1998) by The Jockey Club. The intent was to gather comprehensive data about racing injuries, clinical problems, and fatalities among racehorses across all 59 racecourses in mainland Britain.
  • 222,993 racing starts were monitored, including different types of races (flat on turf, flat on all-weather surfaces, chases on turf, hurdle races on turf, and National Hunt flat races).
  • The observation team comprised two veterinarians and a veterinary surgeon. They documented horse ages, course conditions, and observed clinical events.

Findings of the study

  • Out of 222,993 racing starts, 2,358 clinical events were reported (approximately 1.05% of all starts). This included 1,937 incidents concerning the musculoskeletal system and 421 involving other body systems.
  • There were 657 instances (0.29% of all starts) causing death or necessitating euthanasia of the horse.
  • Of all limb injury reports, 81% involved forelimbs and 46% included flexor tendons or suspensory ligaments, critical elements in horse’s speed and jumping ability.
  • Non-limb problems reported included epistaxis (nosebleeds), ‘exhausted horse syndrome,’ and paroxysmal atrial fibrillation (a heart condition).

Incidents and Risk Factors

  • The study indicated that the rate of incidents including fatalities per 1000 starts varied, being highest in chases (24.7 incidents), followed by hurdle races (19.45), National Hunt flat races (8.46), and flat races (3.97).
  • The risk of injuries per start increased significantly with the age of the horse.
  • Tendon injury rates were higher in chases than hurdle races overall, but when considering age-specific rates, tendon injuries were higher in hurdle races.
  • The condition of the racing surface played a role in injuries and fatalities, with softer surfaces linked to fewer incidents than firmer ones.

Implications of the Study

  • The surveillance study provides an updated description of both fatal and non-fatal incidents in horse racing under various conditions across mainland Britain.
  • The findings could pave the way for enhancing safety measures and the welfare of racehorses, as they offer comprehensive insight into the common types of incidents, injury patterns and related risk factors.

Cite This Article

APA
Williams RB, Harkins LS, Hammond CJ, Wood JL. (2001). Racehorse injuries, clinical problems and fatalities recorded on British racecourses from flat racing and National Hunt racing during 1996, 1997 and 1998. Equine Vet J, 33(5), 478-486. https://doi.org/10.2746/042516401776254808

Publication

Equine veterinary journal
ISSN: 0425-1644
NlmUniqueID: 0173320
Country: United States
Language: English
Volume: 33
Issue: 5
Pages: 478-486

Researcher Affiliations

Williams, R B
  • The Jockey Club, London, UK.
Harkins, L S
    Hammond, C J
      Wood, J L

        MeSH Terms

        • Age Factors
        • Animal Welfare
        • Animals
        • Atrial Fibrillation / veterinary
        • Epistaxis / veterinary
        • Floors and Floorcoverings
        • Horses / injuries
        • Incidence
        • Leg Injuries / veterinary
        • Risk Factors
        • Safety
        • Sports
        • United Kingdom
        • Weather

        Citations

        This article has been cited 81 times.
        1. Guadalupi M, Girelli CR, Della Tommasa S, Corte FD, Crovace AM, Fanizzi FP, Brehm W, Lacitignola L. Metabolomic analysis of synovial fluid from healthy and pathological equine joints and tendon sheaths using high-resolution (1)H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Front Vet Sci 2025;12:1671176.
          doi: 10.3389/fvets.2025.1671176pubmed: 41477162google scholar: lookup
        2. Beaumont RE, Flood C, Guest DJ. Inhibition of interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK)-4 provides partial rescue of interleukin-1 beta induced functional and gene expression changes in equine tenocytes. Mol Biol Rep 2025 Nov 6;53(1):54.
          doi: 10.1007/s11033-025-11219-2pubmed: 41196436google scholar: lookup
        3. Horan K, Pfau T. Effects of jockey position and surfaces on horse movement asymmetry and horse-jockey synchronisation during trotting exercise. PLoS One 2025;20(5):e0324753.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0324753pubmed: 40455846google scholar: lookup
        4. Scharf A, Acutt E, Bills K, Werpy N. Magnetic resonance imaging for diagnosing and managing deep digital flexor tendinopathy in equine athletes: Insights, advances and future directions. Equine Vet J 2025 Sep;57(5):1183-1203.
          doi: 10.1111/evj.14508pubmed: 40314097google scholar: lookup
        5. Son JK, De Paz P, Kim J, Sanaei R, Ryu S, Bailey S, Davies HMS. The change in third metacarpal mid-diaphyseal radiographic dimensions in Thoroughbred foals through growth. Equine Vet J 2025 Nov;57(6):1600-1611.
          doi: 10.1111/evj.14484pubmed: 39967447google scholar: lookup
        6. Allen SE, Taylor S, Given J, Verheyen KL. Risk factors for fatality in jump racing Thoroughbreds in Great Britain (2010-2023). Equine Vet J 2025 Jul;57(4):870-877.
          doi: 10.1111/evj.14450pubmed: 39665146google scholar: lookup
        7. Guest DJ, Birch HL, Thorpe CT. A review of the equine suspensory ligament: Injury prone yet understudied. Equine Vet J 2025 Sep;57(5):1167-1182.
          doi: 10.1111/evj.14447pubmed: 39604165google scholar: lookup
        8. Kuroda T, Minamijima Y, Kinman CK, Takahashi Y, Ebisuda Y, Inoue K, Ishikawa H, Mita H, Tamura N, Nukada T, Toutain PL, Ohta M. Rational quinidine dosage regimen for atrial fibrillation in Thoroughbred racehorses based on population pharmacokinetics. Front Vet Sci 2024;11:1454342.
          doi: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1454342pubmed: 39439824google scholar: lookup
        9. Horan K, Coburn J, Kourdache K, Day P, Carnall H, Brinkley L, Harborne D, Hammond L, Millard S, Weller R, Pfau T. Hoof slip duration at impact in galloping Thoroughbred ex-racehorses trialling eight shoe-surface combinations. PLoS One 2024;19(10):e0311899.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0311899pubmed: 39392818google scholar: lookup
        10. Hanousek K, Fiske-Jackson A, O'Leary L, Smith RKW. Injury to the palmar supporting structures of the fetlock alters limb stiffness and fetlock angle. Equine Vet J 2025 May;57(3):636-644.
          doi: 10.1111/evj.14409pubmed: 39219092google scholar: lookup
        11. Bossuyt FM, Leonard TR, Scott WM, Taylor WR, Herzog W. In-vivo and in-vitro environments affect the storage and release of energy in tendons. Front Physiol 2024;15:1443675.
          doi: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1443675pubmed: 39148742google scholar: lookup
        12. Giraldo A, Koch TG, Madan P, Lepage S, Monteith G, Alizadeh AH, Tran A, Mortagy N, Koenig JB. Effect of extracorporeal shockwave therapy on the immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties of cultured equine umbilical cord blood mesenchymal stromal cells. Can J Vet Res 2024 Jul;88(3):87-93.
          pubmed: 38988333
        13. Carlier S, Depuydt E, Van Hecke L, Martens A, Saunders J, Spaas JH. Safety assessment of equine allogeneic tenogenic primed mesenchymal stem cells in horses with naturally occurring tendon and ligament injuries. Front Vet Sci 2024;11:1282697.
          doi: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1282697pubmed: 38468694google scholar: lookup
        14. Smith EJ, Beaumont RE, Dudhia J, Guest DJ. Equine Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Tenocytes are Insensitive to a Combination of Inflammatory Cytokines and Have Distinct Molecular Responses Compared to Primary Tenocytes. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2024 May;20(4):1040-1059.
          doi: 10.1007/s12015-024-10693-8pubmed: 38396222google scholar: lookup
        15. Taguchi T, Lopez M, Takawira C. Viable tendon neotissue from adult adipose-derived multipotent stromal cells. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023;11:1290693.
          doi: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1290693pubmed: 38260742google scholar: lookup
        16. Jacklin BD, Hanousek K, Gillespie S, Liedtke A, Tucker R, Fiske-Jackson A, Smith RK. Validation of a novel clinical tool for monitoring distal limb stiffness. Front Vet Sci 2023;10:1271036.
          doi: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1271036pubmed: 38249548google scholar: lookup
        17. Sobotková E, Kopec T, Mikule V, Kuřitková D. Influence of horse demographics, country of training and race distance on the rating of Thoroughbreds. Arch Anim Breed 2023;66(4):299-313.
          doi: 10.5194/aab-66-299-2023pubmed: 38039343google scholar: lookup
        18. Ripollés-Lobo M, Perdomo-González DI, Azor PJ, Valera M. Orthopedic Diseases in the Pura Raza Española Horse: The Prevalence and Genetic Parameters of Angular Hoof Deviations. Animals (Basel) 2023 Nov 10;13(22).
          doi: 10.3390/ani13223471pubmed: 38003089google scholar: lookup
        19. Nath LC, Elliott A, La Gerche A, Weir J, Forbes G, Thomas G, Franklin S. Associations between postrace atrial fibrillation and measures of performance, racing history and airway disease in horses. J Vet Intern Med 2023 Nov-Dec;37(6):2573-2583.
          doi: 10.1111/jvim.16878pubmed: 37740606google scholar: lookup
        20. Horan K, Price H, Day P, Mackechnie-Guire R, Pfau T. Timing Differences in Stride Cycle Phases in Retired Racehorses Ridden in Rising and Two-Point Seat Positions at Trot on Turf, Artificial and Tarmac Surfaces. Animals (Basel) 2023 Aug 9;13(16).
          doi: 10.3390/ani13162563pubmed: 37627354google scholar: lookup
        21. Palomino Lago E, Jelbert ER, Baird A, Lam PY, Guest DJ. Equine induced pluripotent stem cells are responsive to inflammatory cytokines before and after differentiation into musculoskeletal cell types. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2023 Aug;59(7):514-527.
          doi: 10.1007/s11626-023-00800-3pubmed: 37582999google scholar: lookup
        22. Beaumont RE, Smith EJ, Zhou L, Marr N, Thorpe CT, Guest DJ. Exogenous interleukin-1 beta stimulation regulates equine tenocyte function and gene expression in three-dimensional culture which can be rescued by pharmacological inhibition of interleukin 1 receptor, but not nuclear factor kappa B, signaling. Mol Cell Biochem 2024 May;479(5):1059-1078.
          doi: 10.1007/s11010-023-04779-zpubmed: 37314623google scholar: lookup
        23. Panizzi L, Dittmer KE, Vignes M, Doucet JS, Gedye K, Waterland MR, Rogers CW, Sano H, McIlwraith CW, Riley CB. Plasma and Synovial Fluid Cell-Free DNA Concentrations Following Induction of Osteoarthritis in Horses. Animals (Basel) 2023 Mar 14;13(6).
          doi: 10.3390/ani13061053pubmed: 36978592google scholar: lookup
        24. Smith EJ, Beaumont RE, McClellan A, Sze C, Palomino Lago E, Hazelgrove L, Dudhia J, Smith RKW, Guest DJ. Tumour necrosis factor alpha, interleukin 1 beta and interferon gamma have detrimental effects on equine tenocytes that cannot be rescued by IL-1RA or mesenchymal stromal cell-derived factors. Cell Tissue Res 2023 Mar;391(3):523-544.
          doi: 10.1007/s00441-022-03726-6pubmed: 36543895google scholar: lookup
        25. Horan K, Coburn J, Kourdache K, Day P, Carnall H, Brinkley L, Harborne D, Hammond L, Peterson M, Millard S, Pfau T. Hoof Impact and Foot-Off Accelerations in Galloping Thoroughbred Racehorses Trialling Eight Shoe-Surface Combinations. Animals (Basel) 2022 Aug 23;12(17).
          doi: 10.3390/ani12172161pubmed: 36077882google scholar: lookup
        26. Morrice-West AV, Hitchens PL, Walmsley EA, Tasker K, Lim SL, Smith AD, Whitton RC. Relationship between Thoroughbred workloads in racing and the fatigue life of equine subchondral bone. Sci Rep 2022 Jul 7;12(1):11528.
          doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-14274-ypubmed: 35798766google scholar: lookup
        27. Doll CU, von Pueckler K, Offhaus J, Berner D, Burk J. Characterization of Equine Chronic Tendon Lesions in Low- and High-Field Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Vet Sci 2022 Jun 15;9(6).
          doi: 10.3390/vetsci9060297pubmed: 35737349google scholar: lookup
        28. Zielińska P, Soroko M, Godlewska M, Śniegucka K, Dudek K, Howell K. Photothermal Effects of High-Intensity Laser Therapy on the Superficial Digital Flexor Tendon Area in Clinically Healthy Racehorses. Animals (Basel) 2022 May 12;12(10).
          doi: 10.3390/ani12101253pubmed: 35625098google scholar: lookup
        29. Melotti L, Carolo A, Elshazly N, Boesso F, Da Dalt L, Gabai G, Perazzi A, Iacopetti I, Patruno M. Case Report: Repeated Intralesional Injections of Autologous Mesenchymal Stem Cells Combined With Platelet-Rich Plasma for Superficial Digital Flexor Tendon Healing in a Show Jumping Horse. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:843131.
          doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.843131pubmed: 35252428google scholar: lookup
        30. Hellings IR, Skjerve E, Karlstam E, Valheim M, Ihler CF, Fintl C. Racing-associated fatalities in Norwegian and Swedish harness racehorses: Incidence rates, risk factors, and principal postmortem findings. J Vet Intern Med 2022 Mar;36(2):778-786.
          doi: 10.1111/jvim.16364pubmed: 35060194google scholar: lookup
        31. Doll CU, Niebert S, Burk J. Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Adapt to Chronic Tendon Disease Environment with an Initial Reduction in Matrix Remodeling. Int J Mol Sci 2021 Nov 26;22(23).
          doi: 10.3390/ijms222312798pubmed: 34884602google scholar: lookup
        32. Horan K, Kourdache K, Coburn J, Day P, Carnall H, Harborne D, Brinkley L, Hammond L, Millard S, Lancaster B, Pfau T. The effect of horseshoes and surfaces on horse and jockey centre of mass displacements at gallop. PLoS One 2021;16(11):e0257820.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0257820pubmed: 34813584google scholar: lookup
        33. Physick-Sheard P, Avison A, Sears W. Factors Associated with Fatality in Ontario Thoroughbred Racehorses: 2003-2015. Animals (Basel) 2021 Oct 13;11(10).
          doi: 10.3390/ani11102950pubmed: 34679971google scholar: lookup
        34. Wagner FC, Reese S, Gerlach K, Böttcher P, Mülling CKW. Cyclic tensile tests of Shetland pony superficial digital flexor tendons (SDFTs) with an optimized cryo-clamp combined with biplanar high-speed fluoroscopy. BMC Vet Res 2021 Jun 25;17(1):223.
          doi: 10.1186/s12917-021-02914-wpubmed: 34172051google scholar: lookup
        35. Wagner FC, Gerlach K, Geiger SM, Gittel C, Böttcher P, Mülling CKW. Biplanar High-Speed Fluoroscopy of Pony Superficial Digital Flexor Tendon (SDFT)-An In Vivo Pilot Study. Vet Sci 2021 May 27;8(6).
          doi: 10.3390/vetsci8060092pubmed: 34072030google scholar: lookup
        36. Depuydt E, Broeckx SY, Van Hecke L, Chiers K, Van Brantegem L, van Schie H, Beerts C, Spaas JH, Pille F, Martens A. The Evaluation of Equine Allogeneic Tenogenic Primed Mesenchymal Stem Cells in a Surgically Induced Superficial Digital Flexor Tendon Lesion Model. Front Vet Sci 2021;8:641441.
          doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.641441pubmed: 33748217google scholar: lookup
        37. Nath LC, Elliott AD, Weir J, Curl P, Rosanowski SM, Franklin S. Incidence, recurrence, and outcome of postrace atrial fibrillation in Thoroughbred horses. J Vet Intern Med 2021 Mar;35(2):1111-1120.
          doi: 10.1111/jvim.16063pubmed: 33604980google scholar: lookup
        38. Nash A, Notou M, Lopez-Clavijo AF, Bozec L, de Leeuw NH, Birch HL. Glucosepane is associated with changes to structural and physical properties of collagen fibrils. Matrix Biol Plus 2019 Nov;4:100013.
          doi: 10.1016/j.mbplus.2019.100013pubmed: 33543010google scholar: lookup
        39. Hampton JO, Jones B, McGreevy PD. Social License and Animal Welfare: Developments from the Past Decade in Australia. Animals (Basel) 2020 Nov 28;10(12).
          doi: 10.3390/ani10122237pubmed: 33260531google scholar: lookup
        40. Crawford KL, Finnane A, Greer RM, Phillips CJC, Woldeyohannes SM, Perkins NR, Ahern BJ. Appraising the Welfare of Thoroughbred Racehorses in Training in Queensland, Australia: The Incidence and Type of Musculoskeletal Injuries Vary between Two-Year-Old and Older Thoroughbred Racehorses. Animals (Basel) 2020 Nov 5;10(11).
          doi: 10.3390/ani10112046pubmed: 33167429google scholar: lookup
        41. Riasat K, Bardell D, Goljanek-Whysall K, Clegg PD, Peffers MJ. Epigenetic mechanisms in Tendon Ageing. Br Med Bull 2020 Oct 14;135(1):90-107.
          doi: 10.1093/bmb/ldaa023pubmed: 32827252google scholar: lookup
        42. Diloksumpan P, Bolaños RV, Cokelaere S, Pouran B, de Grauw J, van Rijen M, van Weeren R, Levato R, Malda J. Orthotopic Bone Regeneration within 3D Printed Bioceramic Scaffolds with Region-Dependent Porosity Gradients in an Equine Model. Adv Healthc Mater 2020 May;9(10):e1901807.
          doi: 10.1002/adhm.201901807pubmed: 32324336google scholar: lookup
        43. Paul SC, Stevens M. Horse vision and obstacle visibility in horseracing. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2020 Jan;222:104882.
          doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2019.104882pubmed: 32025069google scholar: lookup
        44. Russo V, El Khatib M, di Marcantonio L, Ancora M, Wyrwa R, Mauro A, Walter T, Weisser J, Citeroni MR, Lazzaro F, Di Federico M, Berardinelli P, Cammà C, Schnabelrauch M, Barboni B. Tendon Biomimetic Electrospun PLGA Fleeces Induce an Early Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition and Tenogenic Differentiation on Amniotic Epithelial Stem Cells. Cells 2020 Jan 27;9(2).
          doi: 10.3390/cells9020303pubmed: 32012741google scholar: lookup
        45. Ikeda Y, Ishihara A, Nakajima M, Yamada K. Risk factors for superficial digital flexor tendinopathy in Thoroughbred racing horses in Japan. J Equine Sci 2019;30(4):93-98.
          doi: 10.1294/jes.30.93pubmed: 31871411google scholar: lookup
        46. Ribitsch I, Gueltekin S, Keith MF, Minichmair K, Peham C, Jenner F, Egerbacher M. Age-related changes of tendon fibril micro-morphology and gene expression. J Anat 2020 Apr;236(4):688-700.
          doi: 10.1111/joa.13125pubmed: 31792963google scholar: lookup
        47. Legg KA, Breheny M, Gee EK, Rogers CW. Responding to Risk: Regulation or Prohibition? New Zealand Media Reporting of Thoroughbred Jumps Racing 2016-2018. Animals (Basel) 2019 May 24;9(5).
          doi: 10.3390/ani9050276pubmed: 31137709google scholar: lookup
        48. Tsang AS, Dart AJ, Biasutti SA, Jeffcott LB, Smith MM, Little CB. Effects of tendon injury on uninjured regional tendons in the distal limb: An in-vivo study using an ovine tendinopathy model. PLoS One 2019;14(4):e0215830.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215830pubmed: 31013317google scholar: lookup
        49. Spargo KE, Rubio-Martinez LM, Wheeler DP, Fletcher L, Carstens A. Catastrophic musculoskeletal injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses on racetracks in Gauteng, South Africa. J S Afr Vet Assoc 2019 Feb 28;90(0):e1-e5.
          doi: 10.4102/jsava.v90i0.1640pubmed: 30843400google scholar: lookup
        50. Hampton JO, MacKenzie DI, Forsyth DM. How many to sample? Statistical guidelines for monitoring animal welfare outcomes. PLoS One 2019;14(1):e0211417.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211417pubmed: 30699193google scholar: lookup
        51. Hitchens PL, Hill AE, Stover SM. Relationship Between Historical Lameness, Medication Usage, Surgery, and Exercise With Catastrophic Musculoskeletal Injury in Racehorses. Front Vet Sci 2018;5:217.
          doi: 10.3389/fvets.2018.00217pubmed: 30246014google scholar: lookup
        52. Ahrberg AB, Horstmeier C, Berner D, Brehm W, Gittel C, Hillmann A, Josten C, Rossi G, Schubert S, Winter K, Burk J. Effects of mesenchymal stromal cells versus serum on tendon healing in a controlled experimental trial in an equine model. BMC Musculoskelet Disord 2018 Jul 18;19(1):230.
          doi: 10.1186/s12891-018-2163-ypubmed: 30021608google scholar: lookup
        53. Barboni B, Russo V, Berardinelli P, Mauro A, Valbonetti L, Sanyal H, Canciello A, Greco L, Muttini A, Gatta V, Stuppia L, Mattioli M. Placental Stem Cells from Domestic Animals: Translational Potential and Clinical Relevance. Cell Transplant 2018 Jan;27(1):93-116.
          doi: 10.1177/0963689717724797pubmed: 29562773google scholar: lookup
        54. Rosanowski SM, Chang YM, Stirk AJ, Verheyen KLP. Risk factors for race-day fatality in flat racing Thoroughbreds in Great Britain (2000 to 2013). PLoS One 2018;13(3):e0194299.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194299pubmed: 29561898google scholar: lookup
        55. Li M, Chadda KR, Matthews GDK, Marr CM, Huang CL, Jeevaratnam K. Cardiac electrophysiological adaptations in the equine athlete-Restitution analysis of electrocardiographic features. PLoS One 2018;13(3):e0194008.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194008pubmed: 29522557google scholar: lookup
        56. Geburek F, Roggel F, van Schie HTM, Beineke A, Estrada R, Weber K, Hellige M, Rohn K, Jagodzinski M, Welke B, Hurschler C, Conrad S, Skutella T, van de Lest C, van Weeren R, Stadler PM. Effect of single intralesional treatment of surgically induced equine superficial digital flexor tendon core lesions with adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells: a controlled experimental trial. Stem Cell Res Ther 2017 Jun 5;8(1):129.
          doi: 10.1186/s13287-017-0564-8pubmed: 28583184google scholar: lookup
        57. Kuemmerle JM, Theiss F, Okoniewski MJ, Weber FA, Hemmi S, Mirsaidi A, Richards PJ, Cinelli P. Identification of Novel Equine (Equus caballus) Tendon Markers Using RNA Sequencing. Genes (Basel) 2016 Nov 10;7(11).
          doi: 10.3390/genes7110097pubmed: 27834918google scholar: lookup
        58. Maeda Y, Hanada M, Oikawa MA. Epidemiology of racing injuries in Thoroughbred racehorses with special reference to bone fractures: Japanese experience from the 1980s to 2000s. J Equine Sci 2016;27(3):81-97.
          doi: 10.1294/jes.27.81pubmed: 27703403google scholar: lookup
        59. Vindas Bolaños RA, Cokelaere SM, Estrada McDermott JM, Benders KE, Gbureck U, Plomp SG, Weinans H, Groll J, van Weeren PR, Malda J. The use of a cartilage decellularized matrix scaffold for the repair of osteochondral defects: the importance of long-term studies in a large animal model. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2017 Mar;25(3):413-420.
          doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2016.08.005pubmed: 27554995google scholar: lookup
        60. Griffon DJ, Cho J, Wagner JR, Charavaryamath C, Wei J, Wagoner Johnson A. Effects of Hypoxia and Chitosan on Equine Umbilical Cord-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells. Stem Cells Int 2016;2016:2987140.
          doi: 10.1155/2016/2987140pubmed: 27379167google scholar: lookup
        61. Tanner J, Rogers C, Bolwell C, Cogger N, Gee E, Mcllwraith W. Analysis of Failure to Finish a Race in a Cohort of Thoroughbred Racehorses in New Zealand. Animals (Basel) 2016 May 25;6(6).
          doi: 10.3390/ani6060036pubmed: 27231944google scholar: lookup
        62. Bavin EP, Smith O, Baird AE, Smith LC, Guest DJ. Equine Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells have a Reduced Tendon Differentiation Capacity Compared to Embryonic Stem Cells. Front Vet Sci 2015;2:55.
          doi: 10.3389/fvets.2015.00055pubmed: 26664982google scholar: lookup
        63. Whay HR, Dikshit AK, Hockenhull J, Parker RM, Banerjee A, Hughes SI, Pritchard JC, Reix CE. Evaluation of changes in equine care and limb-related abnormalities in working horses in Jaipur, India, as part of a two year participatory intervention study. PLoS One 2015;10(5):e0126160.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0126160pubmed: 26000967google scholar: lookup
        64. Jacobson E, Dart AJ, Mondori T, Horadogoda N, Jeffcott LB, Little CB, Smith MM. Focal experimental injury leads to widespread gene expression and histologic changes in equine flexor tendons. PLoS One 2015;10(4):e0122220.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0122220pubmed: 25837713google scholar: lookup
        65. Takahashi T, Mukai K, Ohmura H, Aida H, Hiraga A. In vivo measurements of flexor tendon and suspensory ligament forces during trotting using the thoroughbred forelimb model. J Equine Sci 2014;25(1):15-22.
          doi: 10.1294/jes.25.15pubmed: 24834009google scholar: lookup
        66. Kihara R, Kasashima Y, Arai K, Miyamoto Y. Injury induces a change in the functional characteristics of cells recovered from equine tendon. J Equine Sci 2011;22(3):57-60.
          doi: 10.1294/jes.22.57pubmed: 24833988google scholar: lookup
        67. Smith RK, Werling NJ, Dakin SG, Alam R, Goodship AE, Dudhia J. Beneficial effects of autologous bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells in naturally occurring tendinopathy. PLoS One 2013;8(9):e75697.
          doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0075697pubmed: 24086616google scholar: lookup
        68. Welsh CE, Lewis TW, Blott SC, Mellor DJ, Lam KH, Stewart BD, Parkin TD. Preliminary genetic analyses of important musculoskeletal conditions of Thoroughbred racehorses in Hong Kong. Vet J 2013 Dec;198(3):611-5.
          doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.05.002pubmed: 23746478google scholar: lookup
        69. Södersten F, Hultenby K, Heinegård D, Johnston C, Ekman S. Immunolocalization of collagens (I and III) and cartilage oligomeric matrix protein in the normal and injured equine superficial digital flexor tendon. Connect Tissue Res 2013;54(1):62-9.
          doi: 10.3109/03008207.2012.734879pubmed: 23020676google scholar: lookup
        70. Kavaguchi De Grandis A, Boulocher C, Viguier E, Roger T, Sawaya S. Ultrasonograph and clinical quantitative characterization of tendinopathy by modified splitting in a goat model. ScientificWorldJournal 2012;2012:472023.
          doi: 10.1100/2012/472023pubmed: 22997496google scholar: lookup
        71. O'Brien EJ, Frank CB, Shrive NG, Hallgrímsson B, Hart DA. Heterotopic mineralization (ossification or calcification) in tendinopathy or following surgical tendon trauma. Int J Exp Pathol 2012 Oct;93(5):319-31.
          doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2613.2012.00829.xpubmed: 22974213google scholar: lookup
        72. Daley MA, Biewener AA. Leg muscles that mediate stability: mechanics and control of two distal extensor muscles during obstacle negotiation in the guinea fowl. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2011 May 27;366(1570):1580-91.
          doi: 10.1098/rstb.2010.0338pubmed: 21502128google scholar: lookup
        73. Murray SJ, Santangelo KS, Bertone AL. Evaluation of early cellular influences of bone morphogenetic proteins 12 and 2 on equine superficial digital flexor tenocytes and bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells in vitro. Am J Vet Res 2010 Jan;71(1):103-14.
          doi: 10.2460/ajvr.71.1.103pubmed: 20043789google scholar: lookup
        74. Stanley RL, Fleck RA, Becker DL, Goodship AE, Ralphs JR, Patterson-Kane JC. Gap junction protein expression and cellularity: comparison of immature and adult equine digital tendons. J Anat 2007 Sep;211(3):325-34.
          doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2007.00781.xpubmed: 17848160google scholar: lookup
        75. Clegg PD, Strassburg S, Smith RK. Cell phenotypic variation in normal and damaged tendons. Int J Exp Pathol 2007 Aug;88(4):227-35.
          doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2613.2007.00549.xpubmed: 17696903google scholar: lookup
        76. Boesen MI, Nanni S, Langberg H, Boesen M, Falk-Ronne J, Bliddal H, Torp-Pedersen S. Colour doppler ultrasonography and sclerosing therapy in diagnosis and treatment of tendinopathy in horses-a research model for human medicine. Knee Surg Sports Traumatol Arthrosc 2007 Jul;15(7):935-9.
          doi: 10.1007/s00167-006-0245-0pubmed: 17323097google scholar: lookup
        77. Gardner DS. Historical progression of racing performance in the Thoroughbred horse and man. Equine Vet J 2006 Nov;38(6):581-3.
          doi: 10.2746/042516406x156514pubmed: 17124851google scholar: lookup
        78. Halper J, Kim B, Khan A, Yoon JH, Mueller PO. Degenerative suspensory ligament desmitis as a systemic disorder characterized by proteoglycan accumulation. BMC Vet Res 2006 Apr 12;2:12.
          doi: 10.1186/1746-6148-2-12pubmed: 16611357google scholar: lookup
        79. Smith RK, Webbon PM. Harnessing the stem cell for the treatment of tendon injuries: heralding a new dawn?. Br J Sports Med 2005 Sep;39(9):582-4.
          doi: 10.1136/bjsm.2005.015834pubmed: 16118291google scholar: lookup
        80. Argentina M, Mahadevan L. Fluid-flow-induced flutter of a flag. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005 Feb 8;102(6):1829-34.
          doi: 10.1073/pnas.0408383102pubmed: 15684057google scholar: lookup
        81. Orchard J. Is there a relationship between ground and climatic conditions and injuries in football?. Sports Med 2002;32(7):419-32.
          doi: 10.2165/00007256-200232070-00002pubmed: 12015804google scholar: lookup
        Subscribe to our newsletter
        Join 99,034 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.