FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Journal of anatomy2018; 232(6); 919-930; doi: 10.1111/joa.12794

Subchondral bone morphology in the metacarpus of racehorses in training changes with distance from the articular surface but not with age.

Abstract: The repetitive large loads generated during high-speed training and racing commonly cause subchondral bone injuries in the metacarpal condyles of racehorses. Adaptive bone modelling leads to focal sclerosis at the site of highest loading in the palmar aspect of the metacarpal condyles. Information on whether and how adaptive modelling of subchondral bone changes during the career of a racehorse is sparse. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to describe the changes in subchondral bone micromorphology in the area of highest loading in the palmar aspect of the metacarpal condyle in thoroughbred racehorses as a function of age and training. Bone morphology parameters derived from micro-CT images were evaluated using principal component analysis and mixed-effects linear regression models. The largest differences in micromorphology were observed in untrained horses between the age of 16 and 20 months. Age and duration of a training period had no influence on tissue mineral density, bone volume fraction or number and area of closed pores to a depth of 5.1 mm from the articular surface in 2- to 4-year-old racehorses in training. Horses with subchondral bone injuries had more pores in cross-section compared with horses without subchondral bone injuries. Differences in bone volume fraction were due to the volume of less mineralised bone. Tissue mineral density increased and bone volume fraction decreased with increasing distance from the articular surface up to 5.1 mm from the articular surface. Further research is required to elucidate the biomechanical and pathophysiological consequences of these gradients of micromorphological parameters in the subchondral bone.
© 2018 Anatomical Society.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2018-02-15 PubMed ID: 29446086PubMed Central: PMC5979622DOI: 10.1111/joa.12794Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Research Support
  • Non-U.S. Gov't

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research investigates how subchondral bone micromorphology – the structure of bones below the cartilage – in racehorses’ metacarpal condyles (part of a horse’s leg bone) changes in response to age and training. The study finds that these bone changes are more prevalent in untrained horses, specifically those aged 16 to 20 months, but not influenced by the age or training duration of 2 to 4-year-old racehorses. Changes occurred closer to the surface of the bones, and horses with bone injuries exhibited more porous bone structure.

Objective of Research

  • The study aimed to understand how subchondral bone micromorphology in thoroughbred racehorses is influenced by age and training intensity. This was prompted by the commonly noticed subchondral bone injuries in racehorses, often resulting from high-speed training and racing.

Methods Used

  • The researchers conducted a cross-sectional study, observing bone morphology parameters through micro-CT images and principal component analysis.
  • These images were further evaluated using mixed-effects linear regression models.

Key Findings

  • The study concluded that the most significant variations in bone micromorphology were seen in untrained horses between 16 to 20 months old.
  • Age and duration of the training period did not influence tissue mineral density, bone volume fraction, or number and area of closed pores up to a depth of 5.1 mm from the articular surface in 2 to 4-year-old racehorses in training.
  • Horses with subchondral bone injuries had a higher number of pores in the cross-section compared with healthy horses. The differences in the bone volume fraction were due to the volume of less mineralised bone.
  • Tissue mineral density increased, and bone volume fraction decreased with an increase in the distance from the articular surface up to 5.1 mm.

Further Research

  • The study suggests that further exploration is needed to understand the biomechanical and pathophysiological consequences of these gradients of micromorphological parameters in the subchondral bone.

Cite This Article

APA
Martig S, Hitchens PL, Stevenson MA, Whitton RC. (2018). Subchondral bone morphology in the metacarpus of racehorses in training changes with distance from the articular surface but not with age. J Anat, 232(6), 919-930. https://doi.org/10.1111/joa.12794

Publication

Journal of anatomy
ISSN: 1469-7580
NlmUniqueID: 0137162
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 232
Issue: 6
Pages: 919-930

Researcher Affiliations

Martig, Sandra
  • Equine Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, Vic., Australia.
Hitchens, Peta L
  • Equine Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, Vic., Australia.
Stevenson, Mark A
  • Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Vic., Australia.
Whitton, R Chris
  • Equine Centre, Melbourne Veterinary School, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, Vic., Australia.

MeSH Terms

  • Animals
  • Bone Density / physiology
  • Cross-Sectional Studies
  • Horses
  • Metacarpal Bones / pathology
  • Metacarpus / pathology
  • Physical Conditioning, Animal / adverse effects
  • Physical Conditioning, Animal / physiology

References

This article includes 43 references
  1. Bani Hassan E, Mirams M, Ghasem-Zadeh A, Mackie EJ, Whitton RC. Role of subchondral bone remodelling in collapse of the articular surface of Thoroughbred racehorses with palmar osteochondral disease.. Equine Vet J 2016 Mar;48(2):228-33.
    pubmed: 25582246doi: 10.1111/evj.12415google scholar: lookup
  2. Barr ED, Pinchbeck GL, Clegg PD, Boyde A, Riggs CM. Post mortem evaluation of palmar osteochondral disease (traumatic osteochondrosis) of the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joint in Thoroughbred racehorses.. Equine Vet J 2009 Apr;41(4):366-71.
    pubmed: 19562898doi: 10.2746/042516409x368372google scholar: lookup
  3. Bogers SH, Rogers CW, Bolwell CF, Roe WD, Gee EK, McIlwraith CW. Impact of race training on volumetric bone mineral density and its spatial distribution in the distal epiphysis of the third metatarsal bone of 2-year-old horses.. Vet J 2014 Sep;201(3):353-8.
    pubmed: 25066031doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.06.018google scholar: lookup
  4. Boyde A. The real response of bone to exercise.. J Anat 2003 Aug;203(2):173-89.
    pmc: PMC1571152pubmed: 12924818doi: 10.1046/j.1469-7580.2003.00213.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  5. Boyde A, Firth EC. Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses to early training. 8. Quantitative back-scattered electron scanning electron microscopy and confocal fluorescence microscopy of the epiphysis of the third metacarpal bone.. N Z Vet J 2005 Apr;53(2):123-32.
    pubmed: 15846396doi: 10.1080/00480169.2005.36489google scholar: lookup
  6. Boyde A, Firth EC. High resolution microscopic survey of third metacarpal articular calcified cartilage and subchondral bone in the juvenile horse: possible implications in chondro-osseous disease.. Microsc Res Tech 2008 Jun;71(6):477-88.
    pubmed: 18320577doi: 10.1002/jemt.20575google scholar: lookup
  7. Boyde A, Haroon Y, Jones SJ, Riggs CM. Three dimensional structure of the distal condyles of the third metacarpal bone of the horse.. Equine Vet J 1999 Mar;31(2):122-9.
    pubmed: 10213424doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03805.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  8. Boyde A, Riggs CM, Bushby AJ, McDermott B, Pinchbeck GL, Clegg PD. Cartilage damage involving extrusion of mineralisable matrix from the articular calcified cartilage and subchondral bone.. Eur Cell Mater 2011 May 28;21:470-8; discussion 478.
    pubmed: 21623571doi: 10.22203/ecm.v021a35google scholar: lookup
  9. Cogger N, Perkins N, Hodgson DR, Reid SW, Evans DL. Risk factors for musculoskeletal injuries in 2-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses.. Prev Vet Med 2006 Apr 17;74(1):36-43.
    pubmed: 16481055doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2006.01.005google scholar: lookup
  10. Dykgraaf S, Firth EC, Rogers CW, Kawcak CE. Effects of exercise on chondrocyte viability and subchondral bone sclerosis in the distal third metacarpal and metatarsal bones of young horses.. Vet J 2008 Oct;178(1):53-61.
    pubmed: 17996470doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.08.016google scholar: lookup
  11. Fatihhi SJ, Harun MN, Abdul Kadir MR, Abdullah J, Kamarul T, Öchsner A, Syahrom A. Uniaxial and Multiaxial Fatigue Life Prediction of the Trabecular Bone Based on Physiological Loading: A Comparative Study.. Ann Biomed Eng 2015 Oct;43(10):2487-502.
    pubmed: 25828397doi: 10.1007/s10439-015-1305-8google scholar: lookup
  12. Firth EC, Delahunt J, Wichtel JW, Birch HL, Goodship AE. Galloping exercise induces regional changes in bone density within the third and radial carpal bones of Thoroughbred horses.. Equine Vet J 1999 Mar;31(2):111-5.
    pubmed: 10213422doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03802.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  13. Firth EC, Goodship AE, Delahunt J, Smith T. Osteoinductive response in the dorsal aspect of the carpus of young thoroughbreds in training occurs within months.. Equine Vet J Suppl 1999 Jul;(30):552-4.
    pubmed: 10659316doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05282.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  14. Firth EC, Rogers CW, Doube M, Jopson NB. Musculoskeletal responses of 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses to early training. 6. Bone parameters in the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones.. N Z Vet J 2005 Apr;53(2):101-12.
    pubmed: 15846394doi: 10.1080/00480169.2005.36487google scholar: lookup
  15. Firth EC, Rogers CW, van Weeren PR, Barneveld A, McIlwraith CW, Kawcak CE, Goodship AE, Smith RK. Mild exercise early in life produces changes in bone size and strength but not density in proximal phalangeal, third metacarpal and third carpal bones of foals.. Vet J 2011 Dec;190(3):383-9.
    pubmed: 21186128doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.11.016google scholar: lookup
  16. Harrison SM, Whitton RC, Kawcak CE, Stover SM, Pandy MG. Relationship between muscle forces, joint loading and utilization of elastic strain energy in equine locomotion.. J Exp Biol 2010 Dec 1;213(Pt 23):3998-4009.
    pubmed: 21075941doi: 10.1242/jeb.044545google scholar: lookup
  17. Holmes JM, Mirams M, Mackie EJ, Whitton RC. Thoroughbred horses in race training have lower levels of subchondral bone remodelling in highly loaded regions of the distal metacarpus compared to horses resting from training.. Vet J 2014 Dec;202(3):443-7.
    pubmed: 25296852doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.09.010google scholar: lookup
  18. Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Firth EC. Effects of early exercise on metacarpophalangeal joints in horses.. Am J Vet Res 2010 Apr;71(4):405-11.
    pubmed: 20367048doi: 10.2460/ajvr.71.4.405google scholar: lookup
  19. Lacourt M, Gao C, Li A, Girard C, Beauchamp G, Henderson JE, Laverty S. Relationship between cartilage and subchondral bone lesions in repetitive impact trauma-induced equine osteoarthritis.. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 2012 Jun;20(6):572-83.
    pubmed: 22343573doi: 10.1016/j.joca.2012.02.004google scholar: lookup
  20. Lambers FM, Koch K, Kuhn G, Ruffoni D, Weigt C, Schulte FA, Müller R. Trabecular bone adapts to long-term cyclic loading by increasing stiffness and normalization of dynamic morphometric rates.. Bone 2013 Aug;55(2):325-34.
    pubmed: 23624292doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2013.04.016google scholar: lookup
  21. Laverty S, Lacourt M, Gao C, Henderson JE, Boyde A. High density infill in cracks and protrusions from the articular calcified cartilage in osteoarthritis in standardbred horse carpal bones.. Int J Mol Sci 2015 Apr 28;16(5):9600-11.
    pmc: PMC4463607pubmed: 25927581doi: 10.3390/ijms16059600google scholar: lookup
  22. Leahy PD, Smith BS, Easton KL, Kawcak CE, Eickhoff JC, Shetye SS, Puttlitz CM. Correlation of mechanical properties within the equine third metacarpal with trabecular bending and multi-density micro-computed tomography data.. Bone 2010 Apr;46(4):1108-13.
    pubmed: 20079474doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2010.01.366google scholar: lookup
  23. Muir P, Peterson AL, Sample SJ, Scollay MC, Markel MD, Kalscheur VL. Exercise-induced metacarpophalangeal joint adaptation in the Thoroughbred racehorse.. J Anat 2008 Dec;213(6):706-17.
    pmc: PMC2666139pubmed: 19094186doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2008.00996.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  24. Norrdin RW, Kawcak CE, Capwell BA, McIlwraith CW. Subchondral bone failure in an equine model of overload arthrosis.. Bone 1998 Feb;22(2):133-9.
    pubmed: 9477236doi: 10.1016/s8756-3282(97)00253-6google scholar: lookup
  25. Parkin TD, Clegg PD, French NP, Proudman CJ, Riggs CM, Singer ER, Webbon PM, Morgan KL. Race- and course-level risk factors for fatal distal limb fracture in racing Thoroughbreds.. Equine Vet J 2004 Sep;36(6):521-6.
    pubmed: 15460077doi: 10.2746/0425164044877332google scholar: lookup
  26. Parkin TD, Clegg PD, French NP, Proudman CJ, Riggs CM, Singer ER, Webbon PM, Morgan KL. Risk factors for fatal lateral condylar fracture of the third metacarpus/metatarsus in UK racing.. Equine Vet J 2005 May;37(3):192-9.
    pubmed: 15892225doi: 10.2746/0425164054530641google scholar: lookup
  27. Pinchbeck GL, Clegg PD, Boyde A, Riggs CM. Pathological and clinical features associated with palmar/plantar osteochondral disease of the metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joint in Thoroughbred racehorses.. Equine Vet J 2013 Sep;45(5):587-92.
    pubmed: 23418959doi: 10.1111/evj.12036google scholar: lookup
  28. Radtke CL, Danova NA, Scollay MC, Santschi EM, Markel MD, Da Costa Gómez T, Muir P. Macroscopic changes in the distal ends of the third metacarpal and metatarsal bones of Thoroughbred racehorses with condylar fractures.. Am J Vet Res 2003 Sep;64(9):1110-6.
    pubmed: 13677388doi: 10.2460/ajvr.2003.64.1110google scholar: lookup
  29. Rapillard L, Charlebois M, Zysset PK. Compressive fatigue behavior of human vertebral trabecular bone.. J Biomech 2006;39(11):2133-9.
    pubmed: 16051256doi: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2005.04.033google scholar: lookup
  30. Riggs CM, Boyde A. Effect of exercise on bone density in distal regions of the equine third metacarpal bone in 2-year-old thoroughbreds.. Equine Vet J Suppl 1999 Jul;(30):555-60.
    pubmed: 10659317doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05283.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  31. Riggs CM, Whitehouse GH, Boyde A. Pathology of the distal condyles of the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones of the horse.. Equine Vet J 1999 Mar;31(2):140-8.
    pubmed: 10213426doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03807.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  32. Riggs CM, Whitehouse GH, Boyde A. Structural variation of the distal condyles of the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones in the horse.. Equine Vet J 1999 Mar;31(2):130-9.
    pubmed: 10213425doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb03806.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  33. Rubio-Martínez LM, Cruz AM, Gordon K, Hurtig MB. Structural characterization of subchondral bone in the distal aspect of third metacarpal bones from Thoroughbred racehorses via micro--computed tomography.. Am J Vet Res 2008 Nov;69(11):1413-22.
    pubmed: 18980423doi: 10.2460/ajvr.69.11.1413google scholar: lookup
  34. Senate. Aspects of Animal Welfare in the Racing Industry. pp. 11–18.
  35. Stepnik MW, Radtke CL, Scollay MC, Oshel PE, Albrecht RM, Santschi EM, Markel MD, Muir P. Scanning electron microscopic examination of third metacarpal/third metatarsal bone failure surfaces in thoroughbred racehorses with condylar fracture.. Vet Surg 2004 Jan-Feb;33(1):2-10.
    pubmed: 14687180doi: 10.1111/j.1532-950x.2004.04007.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  36. Trope GD, Anderson GA, Whitton RC. Patterns of scintigraphic uptake in the fetlock joint of Thoroughbred racehorses and the effect of increased radiopharmaceutical uptake in the distal metacarpal/tarsal condyle on performance.. Equine Vet J 2011 Sep;43(5):509-15.
    pubmed: 21545647doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2010.00316.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  37. Tull TM, Bramlage LR. Racing prognosis after cumulative stress-induced injury of the distal portion of the third metacarpal and third metatarsal bones in Thoroughbred racehorses: 55 cases (2000-2009).. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2011 May 15;238(10):1316-22.
    pubmed: 21568778doi: 10.2460/javma.238.10.1316google scholar: lookup
  38. Turley SM, Thambyah A, Riggs CM, Firth EC, Broom ND. Microstructural changes in cartilage and bone related to repetitive overloading in an equine athlete model.. J Anat 2014 Jun;224(6):647-58.
    pmc: PMC4025892pubmed: 24689513doi: 10.1111/joa.12177google scholar: lookup
  39. Verheyen K, Price J, Lanyon L, Wood J. Exercise distance and speed affect the risk of fracture in racehorses.. Bone 2006 Dec;39(6):1322-30.
    pubmed: 16926125doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2006.05.025google scholar: lookup
  40. White J, Yeats A, Skipworth G. Tables for Statisticians. pp. 36–37.
  41. Whitton RC, Trope GD, Ghasem-Zadeh A, Anderson GA, Parkin TD, Mackie EJ, Seeman E. Third metacarpal condylar fatigue fractures in equine athletes occur within previously modelled subchondral bone.. Bone 2010 Oct;47(4):826-31.
    pubmed: 20659599doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2010.07.019google scholar: lookup
  42. Whitton RC, Mirams M, Mackie EJ, Anderson GA, Seeman E. Exercise-induced inhibition of remodelling is focally offset with fatigue fracture in racehorses.. Osteoporos Int 2013 Jul;24(7):2043-8.
    pubmed: 23371360doi: 10.1007/s00198-013-2291-zgoogle scholar: lookup
  43. Williamson AJ, Sims NA, Thomas CDL, Lee PVS, Stevenson MA, Whitton RC. Biomechanical testing of the calcified metacarpal articular surface and its association with subchondral bone microstructure in Thoroughbred racehorses.. Equine Vet J 2018 Mar;50(2):255-260.
    pubmed: 28833497doi: 10.1111/evj.12748google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 8 times.
  1. Noordwijk KJ, Chen L, Ruspi BD, Schurer S, Papa B, Fasanello DC, McDonough SP, Palmer SE, Porter IR, Basran PS, Donnelly E, Reesink HL. Metacarpophalangeal Joint Pathology and Bone Mineral Density Increase with Exercise but Not with Incidence of Proximal Sesamoid Bone Fracture in Thoroughbred Racehorses. Animals (Basel) 2023 Feb 24;13(5).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13050827pubmed: 36899684google scholar: lookup
  2. Pearce DJ, Hitchens PL, Malekipour F, Ayodele B, Lee PVS, Whitton RC. Biomechanical and Microstructural Properties of Subchondral Bone From Three Metacarpophalangeal Joint Sites in Thoroughbred Racehorses. Front Vet Sci 2022;9:923356.
    doi: 10.3389/fvets.2022.923356pubmed: 35847629google scholar: lookup
  3. De Zani D, Rabbogliatti V, Rabba S, Auletta L, Longo M, Zani DD. Subchondral and Osteochondral Unit Bone Damage in the Fetlock Region of Sport Horses Using Low-Field MRI: Case Series. Animals (Basel) 2025 Dec 2;15(23).
    doi: 10.3390/ani15233468pubmed: 41375526google scholar: lookup
  4. Pan M, Malekipour F, Pivonka P, Morrice-West AV, Flegg JA, Whitton RC, Hitchens PL. A mathematical model of metacarpal subchondral bone adaptation, microdamage and repair in racehorses. J R Soc Interface 2025 Oct;22(231):20250297.
    doi: 10.1098/rsif.2025.0297pubmed: 41027486google scholar: lookup
  5. Malekipour F, Whitton RC, Lee PV. Advancements in Subchondral Bone Biomechanics: Insights from Computed Tomography and Micro-Computed Tomography Imaging in Equine Models. Curr Osteoporos Rep 2024 Dec;22(6):544-552.
    doi: 10.1007/s11914-024-00886-ypubmed: 39276168google scholar: lookup
  6. Hewitt-Dedman CL, Kershaw LE, Schwarz T, Del-Pozo J, Duncan J, Daniel CR, Cillán-García E, Pressanto MC, Taylor SE. Preliminary study of proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy to assess bone marrow adiposity in the third metacarpus or metatarsus in Thoroughbred racehorses. Equine Vet J 2025 Mar;57(2):471-479.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.14086pubmed: 38699829google scholar: lookup
  7. Ayodele BA, Malekipour F, Pagel CN, Mackie EJ, Whitton RC. Assessment of subchondral bone microdamage quantification using contrast-enhanced imaging techniques. J Anat 2024 Jul;245(1):58-69.
    doi: 10.1111/joa.14035pubmed: 38481117google scholar: lookup
  8. Nagy A, Boros K, Dyson S. Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Computed Tomographic and Radiographic Findings in the Metacarpophalangeal Joints of 40 Non-Lame Thoroughbred Yearlings. Animals (Basel) 2023 Nov 9;13(22).
    doi: 10.3390/ani13223466pubmed: 38003084google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,780 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.