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Journal of equine rehabilitation2025; 3; 100035; doi: 10.1016/j.eqre.2025.100035

Substance withdrawal during psychotherapy incorporating equines: A preliminary investigation of the role of neurotransmitters during treatment.

Abstract: Substance withdrawal presents a barrier to substance use disorder (SUD) recovery in part due to symptoms implicating neurotransmitters and their metabolites. Despite this relationship, research investigating alternative treatments such as psychotherapy incorporating equines (PIE) have primarily targeted vital signs and cortisol concentrations. Previous research has also proposed benefits of human-horse physiological coupling, but the role of neurotransmitters in the relationship between humans and horses during PIE has not yet been investigated. The purpose of this study was to characterize neurotransmitter concentrations of humans and horses throughout PIE in withdrawing SUD patients and determine neurotransmitter involvement in human-horse physiological coupling. Saliva samples were collected from humans (n = 6) and horses (n = 4) immediately prior to and following PIE sessions in the first and second week of SUD treatment. Concentrations of 3-methoxytyramine (3-MT) in the second week of treatment increased ( = 0.04) in human participants, and concentrations of serotonin (5-HT) and Homovanillic acid (HVA) decreased ( = 0.04; = 0.03), which may be indicative of withdrawal symptoms improvement. Horses exhibited increased concentrations of 5-HT ( = 0.02) and decreased concentrations of 3-MT ( = 0.01), which could reflect positive interactions within PIE. Patients and horses also developed correlations in 5-HT (0.99, = 0.05), DA (0.20, < 0.01), 3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl acetic acid (DOPAC) (0.70, = 0.01), and glutamate (0.66, = 0.02) concentrations over the course of PIE sessions, indicating human-horse coupling associated and providing support of physiological synchronization between humans and horses participating in PIE.
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Publication Date: 2025-07-01 PubMed ID: 41054628PubMed Central: PMC12497389DOI: 10.1016/j.eqre.2025.100035Google Scholar: Lookup
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  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Objective Overview

  • This study investigated how neurotransmitter levels change in both humans undergoing substance withdrawal treatment and horses involved in psychotherapy sessions incorporating equines (PIE).
  • It also explored the physiological coupling, or synchrony, between humans and horses during these therapy sessions, focusing on the role of neurotransmitters.

Background and Rationale

  • Substance use disorder (SUD) recovery is often complicated by withdrawal symptoms, which are linked to imbalances in neurotransmitters—the brain’s chemical messengers.
  • Traditional research on treatment involving therapy with horses has mostly examined physical measures like heart rate or stress hormones (e.g., cortisol), but not the underlying neurotransmitter dynamics.
  • Human-horse physiological coupling refers to the phenomenon where the physiological states of humans and horses become aligned or synchronized during interactions, potentially enhancing therapeutic outcomes.
  • This study addresses the gap by examining neurotransmitter concentrations to better understand mechanisms behind the effectiveness of therapy incorporating equines in patients experiencing withdrawal.

Study Design and Methods

  • Participants: 6 humans undergoing SUD withdrawal treatment and 4 horses involved in PIE sessions.
  • Sample Collection: Saliva samples were taken from both humans and horses immediately before and after therapy sessions during the first and second weeks of treatment.
  • Neurotransmitters measured included:
    • 3-methoxytyramine (3-MT), a dopamine metabolite
    • Serotonin (5-HT), associated with mood regulation
    • Homovanillic acid (HVA), another dopamine metabolite
    • Dopamine itself (DA)
    • 3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl acetic acid (DOPAC), a dopamine metabolite
    • Glutamate, key in excitatory neurotransmission

Main Findings

  • Humans:
    • In the second week of treatment, human participants showed increased levels of 3-MT, which might reflect changes in dopamine metabolism during withdrawal improvement.
    • Decreased levels of serotonin (5-HT) and HVA were observed, which may signal alleviation of withdrawal symptoms or adaptation during therapy.
  • Horses:
    • Horses exhibited increased serotonin (5-HT) concentrations after sessions, possibly indicating positive emotional states or responses to human interaction.
    • There were decreases in 3-MT levels, which may reflect a calming or regulatory effect within the horse during therapy.

Human-Horse Physiological Coupling

  • The study found strong correlations between humans and horses in neurotransmitter levels over the therapy sessions, suggesting synchronization:
    • Serotonin (5-HT) levels correlated highly with r = 0.99 (p = 0.05)
    • Dopamine (DA) levels showed lower but significant correlation at r = 0.20 (p < 0.01)
    • DOPAC correlated at r = 0.70 (p = 0.01)
    • Glutamate correlated at r = 0.66 (p = 0.02)
  • These correlations support the idea that physiological states between humans and horses become connected during PIE sessions, which might enhance therapeutic outcomes by promoting mutual regulation of neurotransmitter systems.

Implications and Future Directions

  • The findings suggest neurotransmitter changes accompany and perhaps facilitate recovery during withdrawal when psychotherapy with horses is used.
  • Physiological coupling between humans and horses shown via synchronized neurotransmitter changes may be a key mechanism behind therapy’s benefits.
  • Future research with larger sample sizes is needed to confirm these preliminary findings and explore causal relationships.
  • This investigation opens new avenues to integrate neurochemical monitoring in animal-assisted therapies, potentially enhancing personalized treatment approaches for SUD patients.

Cite This Article

APA
Friend MM, Nicodemus MC, Lemley CO, Cavinder CA, Prince P, Holtcamp K. (2025). Substance withdrawal during psychotherapy incorporating equines: A preliminary investigation of the role of neurotransmitters during treatment. J Equine Rehabil, 3, 100035. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eqre.2025.100035

Publication

Journal of equine rehabilitation
ISSN: 2949-9054
NlmUniqueID: 9919149742806676
Country: England
Language: English
Volume: 3
PII: 100035

Researcher Affiliations

Friend, M M
  • Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, 101 Huck Life Sciences Building, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
Nicodemus, M C
  • Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Mississippi State University, Box 9815, MS 39762, USA.
Lemley, C O
  • Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Mississippi State University, Box 9815, MS 39762, USA.
Cavinder, C A
  • Department of Animal and Dairy Sciences, Mississippi State University, Box 9815, MS 39762, USA.
Prince, P
  • Office of Psychological Services, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, PO Box 6100, MS 39762, USA.
Holtcamp, K
  • Office of Psychological Services, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, PO Box 6100, MS 39762, USA.

Grant Funding

  • T32 GM154124 / NIGMS NIH HHS

Conflict of Interest Statement

Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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