FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Animals (Basel) / Time Budgets in Domesticated Male Icelandic Horses on Pastur...
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2025; 15(21); 3206; doi: 10.3390/ani15213206

Time Budgets in Domesticated Male Icelandic Horses on Pasture Turnout in Winter and Spring.

Abstract: There are few 24 h time budgets for horses, especially for domesticated horses kept at pasture. Most time budgets utilise short-term scan sampling, which can miss behaviours. This study aimed to assess the seasonal variation in continuous behaviour of domesticated Icelandic horses at pasture during winter and spring in fair weather. Eight Icelandic horses (11.25 ± 9.19 years; 7 geldings, 1 stallion) were observed in a 26 acre field. Herd location and individual behaviour were continuously observed during 3 h periods amounting to 3 × 24 h in winter and late spring, compiled over 43 days (~21 days per season). Seasonal variation in behaviour (ANOVA), body condition (RMANOVA), and age-group variation (independent -test) were assessed, as well as associations between weather, time period, and habitat choice (chi-square). During spring, horses showed more foraging (+18%; < 0.001), movement (+0.5%; < 0.05), recumbency (+5.7%; < 0.01) and less standing (-24.6%; < 0.001) than in winter. Behavioural synchronicity occurred between adult and juvenile horses. Mean body condition reduced from 5.6 to 4.8 in the winter. Habitat preferences varied by daytime and season, and non-feeding periods lasted less than 2 h. The 24 h foraging activity (winter: 12.7 ± 0.4 h, spring: 17 ± 0.25 h) supported the current recommendation of 12 h/24 h for domesticated horses to meet ethological requirements.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2025-11-04 PubMed ID: 41227536PubMed Central: PMC12610192DOI: 10.3390/ani15213206Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

Overview

  • This study continuously observed the behavior of domesticated male Icelandic horses on pasture during winter and spring to examine how their time budgets and activities change with the seasons.
  • The research aimed to provide a more accurate 24-hour behavioral profile by using continuous observation rather than short-term sampling methods.

Introduction and Background

  • Time budgets represent how animals allocate their time to different behaviors, providing insight into welfare and ethological needs.
  • Previous research on horses often used short scan sampling, which may miss some behavioral events, especially those that are brief or infrequent.
  • There is limited data on true 24-hour continuous observations in domesticated horses, particularly those kept at pasture in different seasons.
  • This study focused on Icelandic horses, a breed commonly kept outdoors, to better understand natural behavior patterns and seasonal effects.

Study Design and Methods

  • Subjects: Eight domesticated Icelandic horses (7 geldings, 1 stallion), aged roughly 11 years on average.
  • Setting: A large 26-acre pasture where the horses lived naturally with minimal disturbance.
  • Observation periods: Behaviors and herd location were continuously recorded across three 3-hour sessions per 24-hour period, repeated to cover three separate 24-hour cycles in both winter and late spring.
  • Total observation spanned about 43 days, split across approximately 21 days per season.
  • Data collected included individual behaviors (foraging, standing, movement, recumbency), herd synchronicity, body condition scores, and habitat choices in relation to weather and time of day.
  • Statistical analyses employed included ANOVA for seasonal behavior differences, repeated measures ANOVA for body condition changes, t-tests for age group differences, and chi-square tests for associations between weather, time, and habitat use.

Key Findings

  • Seasonal behavioral changes:
    • In spring, horses increased their foraging time by 18%, moving more (+0.5%), and spent more time recumbent (+5.7%) compared to winter.
    • Standing time decreased substantially by 24.6% in spring compared to winter.
  • Synchronization: Adults and juveniles demonstrated synchronized behaviors, indicating herd cohesion and social dynamics did not differ substantially by age.
  • Body condition: Horses’ body condition scores dropped from an average of 5.6 in winter to 4.8 by the end of winter, reflecting seasonal nutritional changes or energy expenditure.
  • Habitat use: Preferences changed depending on time of day and season, likely reflecting attempts to manage temperature, forage availability, and weather exposure.
  • Non-feeding intervals: Periods without feeding behavior rarely exceeded two hours, emphasizing the horses’ near-continuous foraging nature.
  • Foraging duration: Horses foraged for an average of 12.7 hours per day in winter and 17 hours per day in spring.

Implications and Conclusions

  • The findings support the recommendation that domesticated horses require approximately 12 hours of foraging per 24 hours to meet their natural ethological needs.
  • Seasonal changes in behavior such as increased foraging and rest during spring are likely related to improved forage quality and availability.
  • Continuous 24-hour behavioral monitoring provides a more comprehensive understanding of horse activity and welfare at pasture than short-term sampling.
  • These insights can inform better management and welfare standards for domesticated horses kept outdoors, ensuring their time budgets more closely align with natural behavior.
  • Body condition monitoring linked with behavior patterns helps identify nutritional needs and potential welfare concerns during different seasons.

Cite This Article

APA
Taylor DEF, Lancaster BE, Ellis AD. (2025). Time Budgets in Domesticated Male Icelandic Horses on Pasture Turnout in Winter and Spring. Animals (Basel), 15(21), 3206. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani15213206

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 15
Issue: 21
PII: 3206

Researcher Affiliations

Taylor, Daisy E F
  • Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK.
Lancaster, Bryony E
  • Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK.
Ellis, Andrea D
  • UNEQUI Ltd., Research~Education~Innovation, Launceston, Cornwall PL15 8RT, UK.

Conflict of Interest Statement

Andrea Ellis works for Unequi Ltd. (research, education) and does get paid a nominal amount for student supervision and support from University of Edinburgh but most of the work carried out for this project was unpaid.

References

This article includes 43 references
  1. Cooper JJ, Albentosa MJ. Behavioural Adaptation in the Domestic Horse: Potential Role of Apparently Abnormal Responses Including Stereotypic Behaviour. Livest. Prod. Sci. 2005;92:177–182.
    doi: 10.1016/j.livprodsci.2004.11.017google scholar: lookup
  2. Arnold W, Ruf T, Kuntz R. Seasonal Adjustment of Energy Budget in a Large Wild Mammal, the Przewalski Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii) II. Energy Expenditure. J. Exp. Biol. 2006;209:4566–4573.
    doi: 10.1242/jeb.02536pubmed: 17079726google scholar: lookup
  3. Murphy BA. Circadian and Circannual Regulation in the Horse: Internal Timing in an Elite Athlete. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2019;76:14–24.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2019.02.026pubmed: 31084748google scholar: lookup
  4. Goodwin D. Horse Behaviour: Evolution, Domestication and Feralisation. In: Waran N.K., editor. The Welfare of Horses. Volume 1. Springer; Dordrecht, The Netherlands: 2007. pp. 1–18.
  5. Dawkins MS. Behavioural Deprivation: A Central Problem in Animal Welfare. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1988;20:209–225.
    doi: 10.1016/0168-1591(88)90047-0google scholar: lookup
  6. Souris AC, Kaczensky P, Julliard R, Walzer C. Time Budget-, Behavioral Synchrony- and Body Score Development of a Newly Released Przewalski’s Horse Group Equus Ferus Przewalskii, in the Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area in SW Mongolia. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2007;107:307–321.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.09.023pmc: PMC3207227pubmed: 22064904google scholar: lookup
  7. Rubenstein DI. Behavioural Ecology of Island Feral Horses. Equine Vet. J. 1981;13:27–34.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1981.tb03443.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  8. Mayes E, Duncan P. Temporal Patterns of Feeding Behaviour in Free- Ranging Horses. Behaviour 1986;96:105–129.
    doi: 10.1163/156853986X00243google scholar: lookup
  9. Waran NK. Can Studies of Feral Horse Behaviour Be Used for Assessing Domestic Horse Welfare?. Equine Vet. J. 1997;29:249–251.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1997.tb03117.xpubmed: 15338901google scholar: lookup
  10. Keiper RR, Keenan MA. Nocturnal Activity Patterns of Feral Ponies. J. Mammal. 1980;61:116–118.
    doi: 10.2307/1379963google scholar: lookup
  11. Houpt KA, O’Connell MF, Houpt TF, Carbonaro DA. Night-Time Behaviour of Stabled and Pastured Peri-Parturient Ponies. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1986;15:103–111.
    doi: 10.1016/0168-1591(86)90056-0google scholar: lookup
  12. Van Dierendonck MC, Bandi N, Batdorj D, Dügerlham S, Munkhtsog B. Behavioural Observations of Reintroduced Takhi or Przewalski Horses (Equus ferus przewalskii) in Mongolia. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1996;50:95–114.
    doi: 10.1016/0168-1591(96)01089-1google scholar: lookup
  13. Beaver A, Ritter C, von Keyserlingk MA. The Dairy Cattle Housing Dilemma: Natural Behavior Versus Animal Care. Vet. Clin. N. Am.-Food Anim. Pract. 2019;35:11–27.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2018.11.001pubmed: 30686457google scholar: lookup
  14. Duncan P. Time-Budgets of Camargue Horses Iii. Environmental Influences. Behaviour 1985;92:188–208.
    doi: 10.1163/156853985X00442google scholar: lookup
  15. Vulink TJ. Hungry Herds: Management of Temperate Lowland Wetlands by Grazing. Rijksuniversiteit Groningen; Groningen, The Netherlands: 2001. Hindgut Fermentation Is Not an Evolutionary Dead End: Comparative Feeding Ecology of Cattle and Horses; pp. 87–103. Van Zee tot Land.
  16. Berger A, Scheibe K-M M, Eichhorn K, Scheibe A, Streich J. Diurnal and Ultradian Rhythms of Behaviour in a Mare Group of Przewalski Horse (Equus ferus przewalskii), Measured through One Year under Semi-Reserve Conditions.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1999;64:1–17.
    doi: 10.1016/S0168-1591(99)00026-Xgoogle scholar: lookup
  17. Olson M.E, Fierheller E, Burwash L, Ralston B, Schatz C, Matheson-Bird H. The Efficacy of Meloxicam Oral Suspension for Controlling Pain and Inflammation After Castration in Horses.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2015;35:724–730.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2015.07.004google scholar: lookup
  18. Maisonpierre I.N, Sutton M.A, Harris P, Menzies-Gow N, Weller R, Pfau T. Accelerometer Activity Tracking in Horses and the Effect of Pasture Management on Time Budget.. Equine Vet. J. 2019;51:840–845.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13130pubmed: 31009100google scholar: lookup
  19. Weinert J.R, Werner J, Williams C.A. Validation and Implementation of an Automated Chew Sensor–Based Remote Monitoring Device as Tool for Equine Grazing Research.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2020;88:102971.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2020.102971pubmed: 32303328google scholar: lookup
  20. Kelemen Z, Grimm H, Vogl C, Long M, Cavalleri J.M.V, Auer U, Jenner F. Equine Activity Time Budgets: The Effect of Housing and Management Conditions on Geriatric Horses and Horses with Chronic Orthopaedic Disease.. Animals 2021;11:1867.
    doi: 10.3390/ani11071867pmc: PMC8300227pubmed: 34201584google scholar: lookup
  21. Taylor D.E.F, Lancaster B.E, Ellis A.D. The Use of Sound Recorders to Remotely Measure Grass Intake Behaviour in Horses.. Animals 2025;15:2273.
    doi: 10.3390/ani15152273pmc: PMC12345507pubmed: 40805063google scholar: lookup
  22. Lamoot I, Callebaut J, Degezelle T, Demeulenaere E, Laquière J, Vandenberghe C, Hoffmann M. Eliminative Behaviour of Free-Ranging Horses: Do They Show Latrine Behaviour or Do They Defecate Where They Graze?. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2004;86:105–121.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2003.12.008google scholar: lookup
  23. Hallam S, Campbell E.P, Qazamel M, Owen H, Ellis A.D. Effects of Traditional versus Novel Feeding Management on 24 Hour Time Budget of Stabled Horses.. EAAP Sci. Ser. 2012;132:319–322.
    doi: 10.3920/978-90-8686-755-4_39google scholar: lookup
  24. Ellis A.D, Fell M, Luck K, Gill L, Owen H, Briars H, Barfoot C, Harris P. Effect of Forage Presentation on Feed Intake Behaviour in Stabled Horses.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2015;165:88–94.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2015.01.010google scholar: lookup
  25. Ellis A.D, Redgate S, Zinchenko S, Owen H, Barfoot C, Harris P. The Effect of Presenting Forage in Multi-Layered Haynets and at Multiple Sites on Night Time Budgets of Stabled Horses.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2015;171:108–116.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2015.08.012google scholar: lookup
  26. Yarnell K, Hall C, Royle C, Walker S.L. Domesticated Horses Differ in Their Behavioural and Physiological Responses to Isolated and Group Housing.. Physiol. Behav. 2015;143:51–57.
    doi: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2015.02.040pubmed: 25725117google scholar: lookup
  27. Roper-Lindsay J, Say A.M. Plant Communities of the Shetland Islands.. J. Ecol. 1986;74:1013.
    doi: 10.2307/2260230google scholar: lookup
  28. Wood C.M, Bunce R.G.H. Survey of the Terrestrial Habitats and Vegetation of Shetland, 1974-a Framework for Long-Term Ecological Monitoring.. Earth Syst. Sci. Data. 2016;8:89–103.
    doi: 10.5194/essd-8-89-2016google scholar: lookup
  29. Henneke D.R, Potter G.D, Kreider J.L, Yeates B.F. Relationship between Condition Score, Physical Measurements and Body Fat Percentage in Mares.. Equine Vet. J. 1983;15:371–372.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1983.tb01826.xpubmed: 6641685google scholar: lookup
  30. Magnússon J, Thorhallsdóttir A.G. Horse Grazing in Northern Iceland–Behavior and Habitat Selection.. Livest. Prod. Sci. 1994;40:77–86.
  31. Harris P.A, Ellis A.D, Fradinho M.J, Jansson A, Julliand V, Luthersson N, Santos A.S, Vervuert I. Review: Feeding Conserved Forage to Horses: Recent Advances and Recommendations.. Animal 2017;11:958–967.
    doi: 10.1017/S1751731116002469pubmed: 27881201google scholar: lookup
  32. Boyd L.E, Carbonaro D.A, Houpt K.A. The 24-Hour Time Budget of Przewalski Horses.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1988;21:5–17.
    doi: 10.1016/0168-1591(88)90098-6google scholar: lookup
  33. Mejdell C.M, Bøe K.E. Responses to Climatic Variables of Horses Housed Outdoors under Nordic Winter Conditions.. Can. J. Anim. Sci. 2011;85:307–308.
    doi: 10.4141/A04-066google scholar: lookup
  34. Luthersson N, Nielsen K.H.O.U, Harris P.A, Parkin T.D.H. Risk Factors Associated with Equine Gastric Ulceration Syndrome (EGUS) in 201 Horses in Denmark.. Equine Vet. J. 2009;41:625–630.
    doi: 10.2746/042516409X441929pubmed: 19927579google scholar: lookup
  35. Boyd L, Bandi N. Reintroduction of Takhi, Equus Ferus Przewalskii, to Hustai National Park, Mongolia: Time Budget and Synchrony of Activity Pre-and Post-Release.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2002;78:87–102.
    doi: 10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00088-6google scholar: lookup
  36. Crowell-Davis S.L, Houpt K.A, Kane L. Play Development in Welsh Pony (Equus caballus) Foals.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1987;18:119–131.
    doi: 10.1016/0168-1591(87)90186-9google scholar: lookup
  37. Jørgensen G.H.M, Bøe K.E. A Note on the Effect of Daily Exercise and Paddock Size on the Behaviour of Domestic Horses (Equus caballus). Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2007;107:166–173.
    doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.09.025google scholar: lookup
  38. Hampson B.A, Morton J.M, Mills P.C, Trotter M.G, Lamb D.W, Pollitt C.C. Monitoring Distances Travelled by Horses Using GPS Tracking Collars.. Aust. Vet. J. 2010;88:176–181.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2010.00564.xpubmed: 20529024google scholar: lookup
  39. Tyler S.J. The Behaviour and Social Organization of the New Forest Ponies.. Anim. Behav. 1972;5:87–196.
    doi: 10.1016/0003-3472(72)90003-6google scholar: lookup
  40. Brinkmann L, Gerken M, Riek A. Adaptation Strategies to Seasonal Changes in Environmental Conditions of a Domesticated Horse Breed, the Shetland Pony (Equus ferus caballus). J. Exp. Biol. 2012;215:1061–1068.
    doi: 10.1242/jeb.064832pubmed: 22399650google scholar: lookup
  41. Buff P.R, Messer IV N.T, Cogswell A.M, Johnson P.J, Keisler D.H, Ganjam V.K. Seasonal and Pulsatile Dynamics of Thyrotropin and Leptin in Mares Maintained under a Constant Energy Balance.. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 2007;33:430–436.
    doi: 10.1016/j.domaniend.2006.08.007pubmed: 17055686google scholar: lookup
  42. Longland A.C, Byrd B.M. Pasture Nonstructural Carbohydrates and Equine Laminitis.. J. Nutr. 2006;136:2099S–2102S.
    doi: 10.1093/jn/136.7.2099Spubmed: 16772510google scholar: lookup
  43. Geor R.J, Harris P. Dietary Management of Obesity and Insulin Resistance: Countering Risk for Laminitis.. Vet. Clin. N. Am.-Equine Pract. 2009;25:51–65.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2009.02.001pubmed: 19303550google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 0 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,000 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.